ANATOMYINTRODUCTION

Anatomy deal with all branches of knowledge which are concerned with the

study of body structure. It has come to mean knowledge of the form and relation

of parts of the body which may be obtained by this fundamental method of

study. It also includes more minute structural details which are uncovered

with aid of microscope and developmental anatomy called Embryology.

HOW DO STUDY

Regional or topographical anatomy. Term whereby the process of gross disection the body is studied region by region by region and the knowledge so a acquired is formulated in descriptions a sort geography of the body

CI

The study of the groups of similar structure throughout the body constitutes the systematic anatomy . (Each region tends to consist of same kind of tissue (bones, muscles, nerves) thus the whole body seem to consist of limited numbers of different tissues

FUNCTIONAL ANATOMY

Uniformity of structure indicates similarity of function and vice verse. Much can be infered about the functional significance of a system from a knowledge of its structural details, this is Functional Anatomy. (Deals with interrelationship of the system with each other).

DEVELOPMENT

Living body is subjected to change from moment of conception to death. The process constituting the develop and growth of individual (ontogeny proceed at very different rate and involve tissue at different stages. They can be divided into:

1)Prenatal or intrauterine develop/embryology2) Postnatal changes

NOTE

Gross or macroscopic anatomy, The structural details elucidated with the naked eyes

Microscopic anatomy: Which can be extended with hand lens the microscope and the electron microscope.

COMPERATIVE ANATOMY

Structural changes which involve the individual (ontogeny) are superimposed on another developmental process which involve every member of animal group collectively. This evolution constitutes of ancestral history or phylogeny of individual, so Human anatomy is part of a large subject study known COMPERATIVE ANATOMY and COMPERATIVE EMBRYOLOGY.

TOPOGRAPHICAL ANATOMY Anatomy is a descriptive science which uses a

series of clearly defined and unambiguous terms to indicate the positions of structures relative to each other and to the body as a whole. In human anatomy the body is always described erect with the palms of the hands facing forwards, that is an ANATOMICAL POSITION. Three artificial sets of planes are been described forming the bases of any description.

CT

1. Sagittal planes:- runs from front to back and one of these divides the body into two apparently equal halves, the middle or median plane. Any structure which lies in sagittal plane near to medial plane than another is said to be medial to it, while the other is said to be lateral; structure lying in the median plane are said to be median.

2. Coronal planes:- run parallel to the long axis of body and pass through it from side to side. Those nearer the front of body are anterior or ventral while those lies near the back are posterior or dorsal.

Note: In human we use anterior and posterior while dorsal and ventral are used in quadrupedal position.

3. Transverse or horizontal planes:- Of any two, that lying nearer the head is said to be superior or cephalic while the other is inferior or caudal.

Other terms\

a) Any two adjacent structures, nearer to the surface of body is superficial or external while the other is deep or internal, irrespective of the plane which they lie. eg. Teeth are deep to the lips and the scalp is superficial to skill.

b) Relation of third structure lying between two other is described as intermediate (middle).

c) In the limbs:- parts of limbs further from the trunk are distal while those nearer are proximal.

• Surfaces corresponding to palm and sole are palmar and plantar while opposite surface the dorsum of hand and foot(dorsal).

• The lateral of the thumb side of forearm and hand may be designated the radial side from the radius, the little finger side similarly may be called ulnar side.

MOVEMENTs1) Movements of trunk or neck in the sagittal

plane are known as flexion, forward bending and extension, backward bending and a coronal plane as lateral flexion. Rotation turning movement around the long axis.

2) Movement of limbs are complicated, but those in the sagittal plane are known as flexion and extension, the former carrying the limbs anterior and folding them, the latter the reverse movement.

On the other hand movement of limbs in a coronal plane is almost limited to proximal joint and carries the limb either by abduction or adduction.

At the wrist when hand is slewed on forearm in the plane of the palm and these are known as abduction or radial deviation and adduction or ulnar deviation.

NB. Abduction & adduction in fingers & toes are named with reference to two other sagittal planes – the median plane of the hand which passes through the middle finger and the median plane of the foot which passes through the second toe.

Also talk on medial rotation & lateral rotation of the limb.

Ct.

Rotation in the limbs, as in the trunk, is represented by a movement of the whole limb or a part of it around its long axis, and when this rotation brings the lateral side of the limb anteriorly it is termed medial rotation; the opposite is lateral rotation.

ANATOMICAL TERMS

NOMENCLATUREIn some cases the translation of the term from

Latin or GreekOnly is given, in others this is followed by its modern meaning where this is different, and

in the third group where there is no clear derivation or the original meaning has been

distorted only the modern usage is given.

ct

•ACINUS. A berry growing in clusters.•A smallest unit of the compound gland; more commonly called an us.•ADITUS. The entrance into a cavity.•AFFERENT. Used to indicate that a structure leads towards the organ it supplies.•ALA. A wing-like projection. Ala of sacrum.

ct

• ALVEOLUS. A small pail. Hence applied to a tooth socket, the smallest air spaces of the lungs; synonymous with the ancinus.

• AMPULLA. A flask. Hence a dilated portion of a tube.

• ANSA. A loop. (Nerve).• ANTRUM. A cave. Hence a cavity or hollow

filled with air and lined with mucous membrane in the interior of a bone.

CT

• ANULUS. A ring.• APONEUROSIS. A tendinous sheet covering a

muscle or extending it to the muscle.• BLAST. A builder. Hence an ending indicating an

immature or stem cell.• BRACHIUM. An arm.• BURSA. A collapsed sac of fluid found especially

where a tendon or a skin slides over bone.

CT

• CANALICULUS. Diminutive of canalis, a canal.Also used to indicate a tunnel.

• COMMISSURE. A joining together. Used to the nervous system to indicate bundles of nerve fibres crossing the midline from side to side, but also for a ridge,etc., joining the two halves of an organ across the median plane.

• CONDYLE . A knuckle. A smooth rounded eminence covered with articular cartilage.

• CORONA. A crown.

CT

•CORTEX. A outer covering of medulla.•CRISTA. A sharp upstanding ridge (cyst). •DENS. A tooth. Odontoid – tooth – like•EFERENT. The reverse of afferent. Of nerves, corresponds to ‘motor’ nerves.•EPICONDYLE. The prominence or projection situated above a smooth articular eminence, though that eminence may not be called a condyle.

• FACIES. A surface.• FALCIFORM. Sickle- shape. FALX,a sickle.• FASCIA. A bandage or swaddling- cloth.

Hence the membrane of fibrous tissue which sheathes the tissue.

• FILUM. A thread. • FOLLICULUS. A small bag.• FORAMEN. A hole.• FORNIX. An arch.• FOSSA. A shallow depression• FOVEA. A pit. Also used in place of fecet.

• FRENULUM. A small bridle or ligament. Usually applied to a fold of skin limiting the separation of the structures to which it is attached.

• FUNDUS. The base of a hallow organ, ussually opposite to its outlet.

• GANGLION. A swelling, usually small and round. In nervous system any peripheral collection of nerve cells.

• GENU. A knee. Hence any bend on structure.• GLOMUS. A ball or tight meshwork of vessels.

Diminutive, glomerulus.• HAMULUS. A hook.

• HIATUS. A slit or gap.• HILUS. A depression where blood vessels and

nerves enter an organ. • INCISURA. A notch.• INFUNDIBULUM. A funnel.• ISTHMUS. A narrow strip of tissue joining two

larger pieces. Hence a narrowing of a canal. • LABIUM OR LIP. The raised margin of an orifice.• LABRUM. A brim• LABYRINTH. A maze of communicating spaces or

canal.• LACUNA. A pit or hole. • LAMINA OR LAMELLA. A thin plate or sheet.

• LIGAMENT. A band or tie joining two structures. Most commonly a fibrous band but may be composed of any tissue.

• LIMBUS. A border or margin.• LINGULA . A thin plate or sheet.• MACULA. A spot or stain.• MEATUS. A passage. A short canal.• MEDULLA. Bone marrow or the pith of plants.

Hence the central portion of any organ where its structure is different from the outer layer or cortex.

• MESENTERY. The fold of tissue which supports the bowel (enteron) in the belly. Has been expanded to include any such supporting structure. E.g., the memesentery of the ovary, more correctly called the mesovarium.

• NODUS OR NODE. Diminutive, nodulus or nodule. A knot. A swelling or protuberance, a spherical aggregation of cells. A discontinuity in the myelin sheath of a nerve fibre.

• NUCLEUS. The kernel of a nut. In the central nervous system refers to a collection of nerve cells.

• OSTIUM. An entrance. Hence the opening into a tube or space.

• PAPILLA. The nipple. Any nipple-shape elevation

• PARENCHYMA. The proper tissue of an organ as distinct from accessory structure such as its fibrous capsule.

• PARIES. A wall. The walls of the abdomen. The parietalbone.

• PEDICLE. Diminutive of pes, a foot. PEDICULUS. The stalk of fruit. A narrow rod or tube joining two structures.

• PELVIS. A basin.• PLEXUS. A plaited or braided structure of

vessels or nerves.• PLICA. A fold .• PORUS. A pore or opening, e.g., of a meatus• RADIX. A root or origin.• RAMUS. A branch.• RAPHE. A seam. The line of union of two soft

tissues.• RETE. A net. Often a labyrinth of

communication channels.

• RETINACULUM. A stay or tie. Usually a band of connective tissue (ligament) which hold a tendon in place

• RIMA. A chink of cleft, e.g., the slit between the eyelids

• SCAPHOID. Scapha , a boat. Any hollowed out structure.

• SEPTUM. A hedge, fence or dividing wall. A partition, usually thin.

• SINUS. A hollow or creek are two of its many meanings. In anatomy its is applied to the air-filled cavities of the cranial bones, to large venous spaces within the skull and elsewhere, and to dilatations of blood vessels.

• SPINA OR SPINE. A sharp-pointed projection.• SOMATIC. Belonging to the body wall.• SPLANCHNIC. Belonging to the gut tube. • SQUAMA. A fish scale or a thin plate.

SQUAMOUS, Scaly.• STRIA. A stripe or line.• STYLOID. Any structure resembling a stylus or

stake. • SULCUS. A rut or furrow.• SYNOVIA. The fluid in joint cavities, bursae,

and tendon sheaths.

• TAENIA. A band or ribbon. Hence any ribbon –like structure.

• TEGMEN. A cover.• TELA. A web. Hence any thin mesh, usually of

fibrous tissue. • TORUS. A heap or protuberance.• TRABECULA. A small beam. Used especially

for the pieces which make up the lattice of cancellous bone.

• TROCHLEA. A pulley or pulley-shaped surface.

• TUBER. A bump or swelling. Also tubercle and tuberosity. Three terms used, without much distinction, for any kind of rounded swealling or eminence.

• VAGINA. A sheath.• VELUM. A covering or curtain. • VESICA. A bladder, especially the urinary

bladder, cf. cystic.• VILLUS. Shaggy hair. Hence applicable to fine

processes visible to the naked eye, projection from a surface.

• VISCERAL. Belonging to the gut tube/relating to the viscera.

• ZONA. A girdle or belt. A circular or ring-like structure.

ELEMENT

Element (rudiment):- is an aggregation of atoms of one kind only.

Various elements in anatomy are initially studied to facilitates the easy learning in gross anatomy either systemic or regional as well as mastering the histology.

TYPE OF ELEMENTS1) Element of myology2) Element of Arthrology3) Element of Neurology4) Element of Osteology e.t.c