Post on 30-Jan-2020
AN EXPLORATION OF THE RELATIONSHIPS
AMONG CULTURAL IDENTITY AND PERCEPTION
OF DANGEROUSNESS OF THOSE
WITH MENTAL ILLNESS
Final Project for PSY589: Thesis
Presented to Dr. Gayle Morse
Department of Psychology Sage Graduate School
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of
Master of Arts in Counseling and Community Psychology
Erin M. Applegarth
May, 2008
TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Abstract……………………………………………………………………… 4 Chapter 1. Introduction and Review of the Literature………………………………... 5 Philippine Culture…………………………………………................. 6 Cultural Identification………………………………………………... 12 Mental Health and Filipino Perceptions……………………………… 15 2. Methods…………………………………………………………………… 20 Materials and Methodology………………………………………….. 20 Design and Data Analysis…………………………………................. 23 3. Results…………………………………………………………………….. 25 Demographics………………………………………………………… 25 Characteristics of Measures…………………………………………... 26 Descriptive Statistics………………………………………................. 26 Analysis and Test of Hypotheses…………………………………….. 27 Multiple Regression Analysis………………………………………… 30 Tests of Hypotheses…………………………………………………... 32 4. Discussion…………………………………………………………………. 34 Implications for Past Theory and Research……………….................. 34 Limitations…………………………………………………………… 35 Implications for Future Research………………………….................. 36 5. References…………………………………………………………………. 37 6. Appendix: Pilot Study Questionnaire……………………………………… 41
Cultural Identity and Perception of Dangerousness 4
ABSRACT
The purpose of this study is to investigate the relationship between cultural identity and
perceptions of dangerousness of persons diagnosed with mental illness. Twelve Philippine born
Filipino Americans and ten non-Filipino Americans participate (N=22). Using individually
administered questionnaires which were translated and discussed with community consultants for
their cultural sensitivity and utility for the Filipino community, results of this research suggest
that culture is significantly related to perceptions of dangerousness. Identification with White
American or Anglo cultural identity (WAC) accounts for 37% of the variance when predicting
perceptions of dangerousness of individuals with mental illness. The goal of this research is to
facilitate understanding regarding cultural perceptions of mental health diagnoses.
Suggested Keywords: culture, cultural identity, ethnicity, Philippines, Filipino American,
perceptions of dangerousness, mental illness.
Cultural Identity and Perception of Dangerousness 5
Chapter One
Introduction and Review of the Literature
Comprising 3.6 percent of the total U.S. population, Asian Americans are the fastest
growing minority group in the United States (Speller, 2005; Chung, Teresi, Guarnaccia, Meyers,
Holmes, Bobrowitz, Eimicke, & Ferran, 2003; Chandras, Eddy, & Spaulding, 1999; Chen,
Kramer, Chen, & Chung, 2005; Bjorck, Cuthbertson, Thurman, & Lee, 2001). Only second to
the Chinese, Filipino Americans are the largest growing Asian group with nearly three million
Filipinos currently residing in the U.S. (Sanchez & Gaw, 2007; Tompar-Tiu & Sustento-
Seneriches, 1995). Of those living in the United States, foreign born Filipinos out number U.S.
born Filipinos at a ratio of two-to-one (Sanchez & Gaw, 2007; Tuason, Taylor, Rollings, Harris,
& Martin, 2007). It is estimated that by the year 2030, the Filipino American population in the
U.S. will grow to four million (Sanchez & Gaw, 2007). Despite these statistics, little is known
about the mental health concerns within this Asian population (Tompar-Tiu & Sustento-
Seneriches, 1995; Sanchez & Gaw, 2007; Speller, 2005).
Research compiled over the last few decades indicates a well-documented disparity in
mental health research, service utilization, and treatment availability for all Asian American
groups (Chandras et al., 1999; Chen et al, 2005; Sanchez & Gaw, 2007; Speller, 2005; David &
Okazaki, 2006). The literature suggests there are a number of practical and cultural barriers to
delivering effective and culturally competent mental health care to this population (Speller,
2005; Chen et al., 2005; Chandras et al., 1999). While a number of studies have attempted to
investigate Asian and Pacific Islander populations in the United States, there is a deficit in the
Cultural Identity and Perception of Dangerousness 6
amount of knowledge published on the topic of Philippine mental health, as well as current
attitudes toward mental illness and treatment (Tompar-Tiu & Sustento-Seneriches, 1995).
Due to the void of information concerning the mental health profile of the Filipino
American, as well as the substantial influx of foreign born Filipinos immigrating to the United
States, the current study is an attempt to help bring recognition and understanding about the
perceptions of mental health in an immigrant Filipino population. Assessing the cultural
identification of Philippine born Filipinos and U.S. born non-Filipinos, this study investigates
how cultural identity may be related to perceptions of dangerousness of individuals with mental
health diagnoses. For the purpose of this investigation, the term ‘Filipino American’ refers to
Filipinos who are either U.S. born or Philippine-born and are currently residing in the United
States.
Philippine Culture
In order to assess perceptions of Filipino Americans, it is important to understand the rich
cultural context native to the Philippine Islands. Positioned between the China Sea to the west,
the Pacific Ocean to the east, and the Celebes Sea to the south, the Republic of the Philippines is
an archipelago consisting of some 7,107 islands in Southeast Asia (Conde, 2004; Sanchez &
Gaw, 2007; Tompar-Tiu & Sustento-Senriches, 1995; de Torres, 2002). This is one of the
world’s most populous countries with a population approximating 76.5 million people (Conde,
2004; National Statistic Office [NSO], Republic of the Philippines, 2003). According to the 2000
Census of Population and Housing National Report, 48% of the Philippine population resides in
urban areas with approximately 10 million people concentrated in the twelve cities and five
municipalities that constitute the greater metropolitan area of the capital city of Metro Manila,
Cultural Identity and Perception of Dangerousness 7
also known as the National Capital Region (NCR) (“Index of Demographic Statistics”, 2007).
Throughout this small and populous archipelago in which provinces are divided by water
and the larger islands are scattered with mountain ranges, thus separating land areas and creating
physical isolation, language and ethnicity diversify the native population (de Torres, 2002). As a
result, more than 100 different ethnic languages currently exist (Sanchez & Gaw, 2007; de
Torres, 2002). In addition, while more than sixty cultural minority groups comprise the
Philippines eight main ethnic groups, each with their own distinct language have been identified
(Tompar-Tiu & Sustento-Senriches, 1995; deTorres, 2002). The eight principle ethic groups
recognized in the Philippines include the Tagalogs, the Cebuano, the Ilocano, the Bikolano, the
Ilonggo, the Waray, the Kapampangan, and the Pangasinenses (Tompar-Tiu & Sustento-
Senriches, 1995; de Torres, 2002). Each ethnic sub-group is perceived as possessing stereotypic
characteristics unique to their group affiliation. Despite the apparent ethnic diversity among
native Filipinos, Pilipino (Tagalog) is the National language spoken by one third of the
population, and English is the second official language of the Philippines with a hybrid of both
Tagalog and English spoken by many Filipinos (Sanchez & Gaw, 2007; Tompar-Tiu & Sustento-
Seneriches, 1995; de Torres, 2002; Conde, 2004).
The culture of the Philippine Islands has historically been marked by neighboring
Malayan, Chinese, Indonesian, and Asian Indian custom and traditions (Tompar-Tiu & Sustento-
Senriches, 1995). The culture of the present day Philippines is a blend of foreign influences from
the Spanish era of rule, American regime, and Japanese occupation (Sanchez & Gaw, 2007).
These influences continue to merge with indigenous Philippine philosophy and culture (2007).
Cultural Identity and Perception of Dangerousness 8
Regionalism
It has been theorized that the strong regionalism demonstrated by Filipinos is an effect
created by the archipelago setting of the Philippines Islands (Sanchez & Gaw, 2007; Tompar-Tiu
& Sustento-Seneriches, 1995). By nature of the archipelago, conditions of geographic isolation,
poor means of transportation, and a scarce economy have historically fostered interdependence
and reliance on extended-family systems (Conde, 2004; Sanchez & Gaw, 2007; Tompar-Tiu &
Sustento-Seneriches, 1995). Rural-to-urban relocation to areas such as Metro Manila has been
encouraged in pursuit of educational opportunities and employment (Conde, 2004; Sanchez &
Gaw, 2007). Regional differences become more apparent in urban areas where Filipinos tend to
group themselves by regional homogeneity and commingle with peers who are native to the
same region (de Torres, 2002). In spite of the regionalism that appears to distinguish and
diversify Filipinos in their native country, as immigrants, Filipinos tend to perceive themselves
as one people with the common bond of being of Filipino ethnicity (Tompar-Tiu & Sustento-
Seneriches, 1995).
The Role of Family
Considered the fundamental basis of society, the significance of family is a prominent
aspect of Philippine culture. While it is common for extended and multigenerational family
members to reside in one household, traditionally, the Filipino family is a nuclear one (Conde,
2004; Tompar-Tiu & Sustento-Seneriches, 1995). Predominately the father is viewed as the head
of the family unit and provides financial support while the mother governs the household,
budgets the family income, maintains most child rearing responsibilities, and may also earn
additional income for the family (1995). However, major family decisions are only decided upon
Cultural Identity and Perception of Dangerousness 9
after speaking with nuclear, as well as extended family members (1995). Essentially, Filipinos
are viewed as collectivists where the family offers strength to its members and the needs and
welfare of the family come before individual or community needs (Shakman, 1969; deTorres,
2002; Tompar-Tiu & Sustento-Seneriches, 1995; Sanchez & Gaw, 2007).
The prominent role of the family system continues to be an influential factor after
immigration. When Filipinos immigrate to the United States, they often live with relatives during
the first few months or years until they have a job in which to support themselves successfully or
until they can afford to buy a home (Tompar-Tiu & Sustento-Seneriches, 1995). It is uncommon
for Filipinos to reside in a location where they do not have relatives (1995). Additionally,
Filipinos living abroad are expected to provide ongoing familial financial support to aging
parents, Godchildren, as well as the educational expenses of siblings (1995).
Religion
Spanish rule brought Christianity to the Philippines. Currently 83-85 percent of the
population identify themselves as practicing the Roman Catholic tradition (Conde, 2004; Tuason
et al., 2007; Sanchez & Gaw, 2007).
Religious spirituality is a primary component of Filipino life and is relevant to indigenous
beliefs about the mental, emotional, and physical facets of health and well being. The strong faith
in religion that is demonstrated by the Filipino people is believed to be a source of strength and
comfort for individuals, especially in times of adversity and hardship (Conde, 2004; Tompar-Tiu
& Sustento-Seneriches, 1995).
Cultural Identity and Perception of Dangerousness 10
American Governance
Historically, Filipinos have a distinct and unmatched relationship with the United States.
Being the earliest Asian immigrants to arrive in the U.S., Filipinos first settled in Louisiana as
early as the 1700’s (David & Okazaki, 2006; Tompar-Tiu & Sustento-Senriches, 1995; Sanchez
& Gaw, 2007).
Under Spanish rule for three hundred thirty three years, Spain ceded the Philippines to
the United States in 1898 after defeat in the Spanish-American War (deTorres, 2002; Tompar-
Tiu & Sustento-Senriches, 1995). The Republic of the Philippines remained a U.S. protectorate
and the only U.S. colony in Asia for the next forty-eight years, until 1946 (David & Okazaki,
2006; deTorres, 2002). Despite Philippine independence from the U.S. following 1946, the
United States military bases located in the Philippines were maintained until 1992 (David &
Okazaki, 2006).
Under U.S. authority, many changes took place in the Republic of the Philippines. One of
the most influential projects implemented by the U.S. was the establishment of a public
education system making education available for members of all social classes (Tompar-Tiu &
Sustento-Seneriches, 1995). As a result of American governance or colonialism, which exposed
and influenced the culture of the Philippines to the English language and American lifestyle,
Filipinos remain familiar with current American language and culture (deTorres, 2002; David &
Okazaki, 2006).
Cultural Identity and Perception of Dangerousness 11
Filipino Immigration
Throughout history, there have been four major periods of Filipino immigration to the
United States. In regard to their relevance on current Filipino American culture, the latter two
immigration periods are most significant. The third major immigration period occurred when the
Philippines gained their independence from the United States. Between 1945 and 1965, Filipinos
entering the U.S. consisted mainly of war veterans who fought along side U.S. soldiers during
World War II, military personnel and their families, students, and professionals (Tompar-Tiu &
Sustento-Seneriches, 1995; deTorres, 2002). This wave of immigration brought a significant
number of doctors, nurses, engineers, technicians, accountants, and other educated professionals
to the States.
The fourth significant period of immigration occurred from 1965 and after (Tompar-Tiu
& Sustento-Seneriches, 1995). The Immigration and Naturalization Act (PL 89-236) passed in
1965, ended the national origin quota established by the Tydings McDuffie Law, thus allowing
entry of foreigners into the United Sates based on family reunification and occupational
characteristics (Sanchez & Gaw, 2007; Chandras et al., 1999; Tompar-Tiu & Sustento-
Seneriches, 1995). Since the passage of the Immigration Act into the present, there has been an
influx of Filipino immigrants who are characteristically, college educated, English-speaking,
professionals trained as physicians, nurses, and other health care occupations (Sanchez & Gaw,
2007; Tompar-Tiu & Sustento-Seneriches, 1995). The trend of mostly educated, English
speaking Filipino professionals continues to be the majority of persons arriving from the
Philippines today.
Cultural Identity and Perception of Dangerousness 12
Filipinos in America
The residual influence of American culture in the Philippines has allowed emigrating
Filipinos to adapt easily to the American lifestyle without the obstacle of overcoming traditional
language and cultural barriers markedly experienced by other ethnic immigrant populations
(deTorres, 2002). With a reputation for being industrious and attaining upward mobility,
currently in the U.S., Filipino Americans have the highest rate of labor participation among all
Asian groups (Sanchez & Gaw, 2007). However, despite high employment rates, Filipino
Americans typically earn a median income in comparison to other Asian ethnic groups (2007).
While it appears that Filipino Americans may acculturate to the American way of life with noted
ease, it has been implicated that second generation (U.S. born) Filipinos have a decreased sense
of Filipino ethnic identity, attend college less frequently and exhibit a greater degree of mental
health concerns versus first generation immigrants (Tuason et al., 2007).
Cultural Identification
Oetting and Beauvais (1990-1991) define cultural identity as an outcome of continuous
interaction between the individual and his or her environment. While cultural identity is
generally related to early familial experiences, it is has the ability to change throughout an
individual’s life in accordance with the individuals’ experiences (1990-1991). Given the ethnic
and cultural diversity among the Filipino population it is necessary to recognize that cultural
content within a single ethnic group can vary considerably (Oetting & Beauvais, 1990-91). In
addition, a person may identify with two separate cultural groups despite incongruities between
the cultures.
Cultural Identity and Perception of Dangerousness 13
Cultural Identification becomes even more complex when considering the experience of
immigration. Bhugra, Bhui, Mallett, Desai, Singh, and Leff (1999) suggest the issue of
acculturation in the form of assimilation to a new or different culture, deculturation, or
adaptation, is an important element when measuring cultural identity. Recognizing that cultural
identification is a multi-dimensional concept, Bhugra et al., (1999) suggest the relationship
between the dominant cultural group and the non-dominate group is crucial to the dynamic
acculturation process, in that, when two cultures merge it is likely that the cultural change will
affect both groups; however the non-dominate group will be affected the most by demonstrating
the most change.
A Qualitative Study in Review
In a qualitative study comparing the ethnic identities of Filipino Americans born in the
United States with Philippine-born Filipino Americans, Tuason, Taylor, Rollings, Harris, and
Martin (2007) identify several factors pertinent to distinguishing an individual’s identity.
According to their findings, both groups respectively consider themselves Filipino American.
However, it appears that Philippine-born Filipino Americans identify themselves as being
Filipino foremost while defining themselves as being American only by matter of circumstance
(e.g. emigrating as an adult or being married to an American). Identification of oneself as
predominately Filipino is directly related to having lived in the Philippines longer than one has
resided in the U.S., emigrating at an older age, typically as an adult, or having parents who
emigrated. In contrast with Philippine-born immigrants, U.S-born Filipinos place a greater
emphasis on identification with the American lifestyle (2007). While Philippine born individuals
identify more strongly with Filipino ethnic identity than their U.S. born counterpart, despite
Cultural Identity and Perception of Dangerousness 14
place of birth, both groups ultimately consider the Filipino American ethnic identity as being a
combination of both cultures (2007).
While the individuals who participated in the qualitative study had either emigrated to
the U.S. or were born in the U.S., all respondents stated that they participate in the American
way of life, as well as retain Filipino cultural identity to some degree. However, it is unclear to
what extent if any, that the cultural content of the Filipino American changed as a result of
cultural transition. According to Bhugra et al’s., (1999) research on acculturation, it would be
important to consider how this process may effect or alter individual or group perceptions.
Ethnic Invisibility
The concept of cultural identification becomes evermore important when considering the
Filipino American identity. Despite the vast number of Filipinos currently immigrating to and
residing in the United States, they are often perceived as an “invisible” ethnic group (Sanchez &
Gaw, 2007, p.811; deTorres, 2002). Research indicates that Filipinos are often misidentified as
Latinos because of their Spanish sounding sir names (Sanchez & Gaw, 2007; deTorres, 2002). In
addition, due to their Asian features, Filipinos are sometimes mistaken as being Chinese or
mistaken for being African American due to their sometimes dark skin tone (Sanchez & Gaw,
2007; deTorres, 2002). Among Asian minorities, Filipino Americans also have the highest rate of
interracial marriages which may influence acculturation, ethnic identification, and self-
perception (Sanchez & Gaw, 2007; Tuason et al., 2007).
Recognizing the ethnic diversity of Filipino Americans and the need to assess cultural
identification in order to fully understand the Filipino experience and perspective, the current
Cultural Identity and Perception of Dangerousness 15
study considers the concept of cultural content, or the specific behaviors, attitudes, or beliefs
adorned by Filipino culture and acknowledges that cultural content may be altered in the process
of cultural transition; transition from one culture to another (Oetting & Beauvais, 1990-91).
Therefore, findings from identification with one sub-group may not generalize to all people of
Filipino ethnicity (Sanchez & Gaw, 2007).
Mental Health and Filipino Perceptions
Individuals, as well as ethnic groups cannot be fully understood outside of the context of
their culture. While research clearly suggests Asian populations in the U.S. underutilize mental
health services, yet appear to have significant instances of mental health concerns, it is necessary
to consider the notion of mental illness from both the native Filipino perspective, as well as the
Filipino American perspective (Speller, 2005; Tuason et al., 2007; Sanchez & Gaw, 2007).
Native Historical Perspective
Unlike the Western illness model which lends organic and physiological causation to
illness, early ethnographic studies conducted in the Philippines suggest that Filipinos’
conceptualize illness differently. Traditionally Filipinos have held strong beliefs that spirits can
produce both physical and mental illness (Conde, 2004). In addition, the notion of pasma, an
interaction between hot and cold, wherein health is measured by the balance between these two
extremities, is a common explanation for the onset of illness, particularly in the Christian
Filipino population (Tompar-Tiu & Sustento-Senriches, 1995; Edman & Johnson, 1999).
In Robert Shakman’s (1969) research on Philippine indigenous healing practices used to
treat mental illness, he concludes that traditional folk medicine utilized in the Philippines is
Cultural Identity and Perception of Dangerousness 16
embedded in native theories of disease causation including beliefs pertaining to the loss of a
person’s soul, evil spirits, magic, and violation of taboo. In accordance with Shakman’s (1969)
early research, similar ethnographic studies conclude that spiritual and social elements are
important causal factors in the Filipino conceptualization of illness (Edman & Kameoka, 1997).
Indigenous treatments for metal illness include the use of herbs, liniments, prayer, healers, and
priests (Tompar-Tiu & Sustento-Seneriches, 1995; Sanchez & Gaw, 2007; deTorres, 2002)
Current Filipino Culture Perspective
Unlike many other Asian countries located in the Western Pacific region, over the past
few decades, the Philippines has experienced significant transformation including an increased
access to modern Western treatment facilities for health care, increased availability of formal
education, as well as an economical growth of the middle class (Edman & Kameoka, 1997;
Conde, 2004). While some regions of the Philippine Islands are becoming urbanized, traditional
folk beliefs and practices remain prevalent in many rural communities (Conde, 2004). The
importance of prayer and spiritual or religious consultation in regards to mental health can not be
emphasized enough (Sanchez & Gaw, 2007).
Schizophrenic disorders are cited as a significant mental health problem in the
Philippines (Tompar-Tiu & Sustento-Seneriches, 1995; Conde, 2004). While there is limited
access to psychotropic medications, outpatient mental health clinics, and inpatient mental health
facilities remain largely over crowded, mental illness is generally dealt with through the help of
the family system, friends, and religious faith (Conde, 2004; Sanchez & Gaw, 2007; deTorres,
2002). Being collectivists with an emphasis on the significance of the family unit, there is an
expectation within Philippine culture for the family to take care of those members, who are
Cultural Identity and Perception of Dangerousness 17
young, elderly, weak, or sick (Tompar-Tiu & Sustento-Seneriches, 1995). However, it is
imperative to note that the indigenous concept of ‘hiya’ or shame is often felt by family members
of an individual who is inflicted with such illness (Tompar-Tiu & Sustento-Seneriches, 1995;
Sanchez & Gaw, 2007, p. 812). Often, the mental illness of a family member is associated as
being an illness of the family system and can be a source of social embarrassment for family
members.
Although literature suggests that Filipinos are apt to willingly interact with persons
diagnosed with mental illness, there is generally a rejection based on the belief that persons with
mental illnesses are dangerous and unpredictable (deTorres, 2002; Sanchez & Gaw; 2007).
Rejection of these individuals is demonstrated through the non acceptance of persons with
mental illness as employees or cohabitants.
Interestingly, several studies indicate that persons with a higher degree of education are
less likely to view individuals with mental illness as being dangerous (Corrigan & Watson, 2007;
Edman & Kameoka, 1997; Edman & Johnson, 1999). In their study on stigma, Corrigan and
Watson (2007) found that women were less likely to endorse stigma of psychiatric disorders
versus men. In addition, they also found that participants with higher degrees of education were
also less likely to endorse stigma than less educated participants.
Similarly, in their study examining the role of cultural group membership and education
in explaining illness schemas, Edman and Kameoka (1997) compared Filipina women’s
perceptions with Caucasian Americans perspectives. Results from their study supported the
hypothesis that belief in Spiritual-Social components of illness causation is more predictive for
both the educated and less educated Filipina women versus the Caucasian American women.
Cultural Identity and Perception of Dangerousness 18
However, among the Filipina participants, the Spiritual-Social component of illness causation
was more salient for the less educated Filipina women than the educated Filipina women.
These results suggest that cultural group membership and education may have an impact
on beliefs about illness causation. As demonstrated by the data, Edman and Kameoka (1997)
suggest that formal education and higher socioeconomic status within ethnic groups may alter
indigenous beliefs to some extent, however it is not likely that the cultural component of spiritual
attribution toward illness schema would be eliminated. Furthermore, these authors indicate that
the notion of modernization is important to consider when assessing the extent to which
indigenous beliefs may be modified by Western influences.
Ultimately, the rationale and explanation of an illness concept is inseparable from an
individuals’ cultural and social frame of reference and should therefore, always be taken into
account when interpreting the illness (Edman & Kameoka, 1997). Based on the few existing
studies on Filipino ethnicity and perceptions of persons with mental illness, an exploratory
analysis was conducted through a pilot study.
After reviewing the research on Filipino Americans and assessing the possible influence
of several factors including the effects of modernization, familiarity with American culture,
current immigration trends indicating a continuous influx of educated professional Filipino
immigrants, many who work as health care professionals, as well as potential transitions in
cultural content post immigration, it is hypothesized that:
H1: Perceptions of dangerousness will be negatively associated with Filipino or Filipino
American cultural identification.
Cultural Identity and Perception of Dangerousness 19
H2: Perceptions of dangerousness will be positively associated with White American or Anglo
cultural identification.
Thus, if identification with Filipino or Filipino American cultural identity increases then
perceptions of dangerousness should decrease and as White American or Anglo cultural identity
increases, perception of dangerousness should also increase. Further, since this is an orthogonal
model there are no hypotheses examined with respect to Filipino cultural identity and White
cultural identity.
Figure 1
White-American or Anglo
Cultural Identification
Filipino or Filipino American Cultural
Identification
Perception of Dangerousness
+
_
Cultural Identity and Perception of Dangerousness 20
Chapter Two
Methods
This study involved the second phase of a two-phase process and can best be described as
a retrospective, post hoc design since no manipulation of an experimental condition was
conducted. The primary research design was based on ascertaining the extent to which cultural
identification can be utilized to understand perceptions of dangerousness of persons diagnosed
with mental illness.
Participants
This research involved conducting a pilot study (Phase II). A convenience sample of
twelve Filipino immigrants living in the Albany, New York area and ten U.S. born non-Filipino
Americans living in the Albany, New York area, participated. All participants were between
eighteen and sixty-seven years of age (M = 40, SD = 39.7). Filipino participants did not
immigrate to the United States prior the age of twelve. No female participants were pregnant.
Materials
The relationship among cultural identity and perceptions of dangerousness were assessed
using an individually administered questionnaire. Questionnaires were translated and discussed
with community consultants (Phase I) for their cultural sensitivity and utility for the Filipino
community. Each survey instrument consisted of a demographics questionnaire, a Cultural
Identity Scale (CIS), two questions related to mental illness, one question related to recovery,
and a Dangerousness Scale (DS) measuring perceptions of dangerousness in regard to
individuals with mental illness.
Cultural Identity and Perception of Dangerousness 21
Demographics Questionnaire
The demographics questionnaire contained fourteen items pertaining to each participant’s
gender, date of birth, location where the participant was born, location where participant
currently lives, marital status, highest level of education completed, weather or not she/he is a
student and if so what is the field of study, employment status, and religious or spiritual
affiliation.
Cultural Identity Scale (CIS)
The Cultural Identification instrument used was designed to measure an individual’s
perception of their cultural affiliation. It is an orthogonal model that allows an individual to
identify with more than one culture simultaneously and at different levels, therefore increased
identification with one culture does not require decreased identification with another (Oetting &
Beauvais, 1990-1991). Essentially, cultural identification with one ethnic group can be measured
independently from one’s identification with another group. The Orthogonal Identification
Model was designed to capture all possible combinations of cultural identity and acknowledges
that change in one’s cultural identity is possible. This measure specifically includes a category
for measuring the identity of Asian or Asian American individuals and has been used to measure
the cultural identity in several studies conducted by Oetting and Beauvais (1990). The orthogonal
model has been used by researchers in New York State as well (Santiago-Rivera, A., Morse, G.
S., Hunt, A., & Lickers, H., 1997; DeCaprio, A. P., Johnson, G. W., Tarbell, A. M., Carpenter,
D. O., Chiarenzelli, J. R., Morse, G. S., Santiago-Rivera, A. L., Schymura, M. J., and Akwesasne
Task Force on the Environment, 2005). Typical internal consistency of this measure has
reliability with a Chronbach’s alpha measure in the high .80s.
Cultural Identity and Perception of Dangerousness 22
Dangerousness Scale (DS)
The Dangerousness Scale (DS) is an eight-statement survey designed to measure attitudes
and stigma toward persons with mental illness. This scale was adopted from Penn (1994) and
Link (1986) and modified by Mas and Hatim (2002). The original scale measured attitudes and
stigma toward persons with mental illness in a population of undergraduate students attending
college at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln (Penn, 1994). This scale had an internal
consistency of 0.78. The dangerousness scale was amended from its original form in order to
accommodate Malaysian and Pacific Islander (Asian) populations. Conducted with first year pre-
clinical and final year clinical students attending the University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur,
Malaysia; the dangerousness scale was used to assess the attitudes of medical students toward
mental illness (Mass & Hatim, 2002). The proposed study utilized the dangerousness scale
adapted by Mass and Hatim (2002) to accommodate the Filipino population.
Procedure
Both measures were translated into Tagalog in order to clarify any differences or
unfamiliarity with American terminology. Additionally, ten Filipino cultural identities were
added to the Cultural Identity Scale (CIS) to capture the main cultural sub-groups identified in
the literature. Participants were individually asked by the researcher to participate in this study.
Upon consent to participate in this study, subjects were instructed to complete the survey by
circling or checking all answers that applied to them directly. Participants were asked to answer
all questions to the best of their ability.
Cultural Identity and Perception of Dangerousness 23
Upon completion, subjects were instructed to place their own, individually completed
survey in a manila envelope. All completed forms remained in the envelope unseen by the
researcher until all necessary data had been collected. All participants were thanked individually
for his or her participation. No compensation was given.
Design and Data Analysis
The methods of data analysis that were employed include (1) descriptive statistics of the
sample, and the classified sub-groups on all of the study variables, (2) histograms, box plots, and
correlation matrices for variables in question, (3) bivariate correlation analysis of the study
variables, and (4) logistic regression for the multiple predictor models aimed at predicting
differences among the variables.
An ex post facto research design was employed in this study. The dependent variable
(DV) is the measured levels of perception of dangerousness using the Dangerousness Scale (DS).
The independent variables (IV) were identification with White American or Anglo culture
(WAC) and identification with Filipino or Filipino American culture (FAM). Additional cultural
variables were included in a modified version of the Cultural Identity Scale (CIS) revised to
encompass the ten main Filipino ethnic sub-groups identified in the literature along with the
original six cultural identifications. Both measures are self-reports, therefore while they may
adequately indicate an individual’s subjective sense of their cultural affiliation, as well as
perceptions of dangerousness, they may also present limitations and other problems with
measurement.
Cultural Identity and Perception of Dangerousness 24
Power Analysis
A power analysis was conducted prior to commencement of this pilot study which
indicates that a sample size of N=22 was enough to identify variability. The statistical power of
the overall model described in previous paragraphs was greater than 90% on the equivalent of
the whole model R2’s.
Cultural Identity and Perception of Dangerousness 25
Chapter Three
Results
Demographics
The majority of respondents in this study were female (72.7%). The respondents were
between 18 and 67 years of age. The mean age of subjects was 40 (M=39.7, SD=14.7). All
participants had a least some high school education and most had some degree of college
education (81.8%). Additionally, 63.6% of this sample identified themselves as being married.
The Catholic tradition was the predominate religious affiliation for this sample.
Table 1
Descriptive Statistics for Pilot Study Sample (N=22)
Variable Name N % of sample Gender________________________________________________________________________
Males 6 27.3% Females 16 72.7%
Educational Attainment__________________________________________________________
Some High School 1 4.5% High School Diploma/ 3 13.6% GED Certificate Some College 5 22.7% Bachelor’s Degree 8 36.4% Some Graduate School 2 9.1% Master’s Degree 3 13.6%
Religious Affiliation_____________________________________________________________
Catholic 13 59.1% Protestant 6 27.3% Other 1 4.5% No Religious Affiliation 2 9.1%
Cultural Identity and Perception of Dangerousness 26
Variable Name N % of sample Marital Status__________________________________________________________________
Never Married 6 27.3% Married 14 63.6% Divorced 1 4.5% Separated 1 4.5%
Age__________________________________________________________________________
18-67 yrs. N=22 M=39.7, SD=14.7 Characteristics of Measures
Participants in this study varied greatly in their cultural identification, even within the ten
Filipino sub-groups. Due to the large number of possible cultural sub-group affiliations and small
sample size a Factor Analysis was conducted to coalesce the data. Upon conducting a principle
component factor analysis with varimax rotation, five categories emerged. These were organized
in a logical fashion and can be best described as (1) identification with White American or Anglo
culture (WAC), (2) identification with Mexican American or Spanish culture (MSC), (3)
predominate identification with Filipino cultures (PFC), (4) predominate identification with
Asian or Asian American culture (PAC) and (5) predominate identification with Black and
American Indian cultures (PBAIC). These will be used in the analysis.
Descriptive Statistics
The means, standard deviations and ranges for the independent and dependent variables
of the study are summarized in Table 2 (N=22). The Dangerousness Scale (DS), a measure used
to assess participant’s perceptions regarding individuals diagnosed with mental illness revealed
appropriate variability across subjects with a standard deviation of 5.16, a minimum score of
22.00 and a maximum score of 41.00. The Cultural Identification Scale (CIS), which is a
Cultural Identity and Perception of Dangerousness 27
subjective measure of an individual’s perception of their cultural affiliation, also demonstrated
acceptable variability across subjects.
______________________________________________________________________________ Table 2 Descriptive Statistics of the Dependent and Independent Variables of the Study (N=22)
Variable Mean SD Range DS 32.22 5.16 22.00-41.00 WAC 1.371 1.08 .00-3.00 MSC .38 .598 .00-2.17 PFC .31 .558 0-2 PAC .71 .868 0-3 PBAIC .28 .516 0-2 Analysis and Tests of Hypotheses
Data were analyzed using regression analysis to evaluate the hypothesized relationships
between cultural identification and perceptions of dangerousness. The principle analysis is based
on the evaluation of a univariate, five predictor multiple regression model using the operational
variables perception of dangerousness (DS), identification with White American culture (WAC),
identification with Mexican American or Spanish culture (MSC), predominate identification with
Filipino culture (FAM), predominate identification with Asian or Asian American culture (PAC),
and predominate identification with Black and American Indian cultures (PBAIC).
Cultural Identity and Perception of Dangerousness 28
______________________________________________________________________________ Table 3 Regression Equation
DS= a+b1*WAC+b2*MSC+b3*PFC+b4*PAC+b5*PBAIC
Where: a is a constant DS represents Perceptions of Dangerousness, WAC represents Identification with White American or Anglo Culture MSC represents Identification with Mexican American or Spanish Culture PFC represents Predominate Identification with Filipino Cultures PAC represents Predominate Identification with Asian or Asian American Culture PBAIC represents Predominate Identification with Black and American Indian Cultures
Table four illustrates the specific statistical tests and research criteria used to evaluate the
overall statistical significance and congruousness of the regression model, as well as to test the
two research hypotheses.
Table 4 Statistical Tests and Research Criteria Tests Acceptance Criteria The F-Test was used to evaluate the overall P(F)<.05 congruousness of the Regression Model. The Coefficient of Multiple Determination (R2) P(F)<.05 was used to estimate the proportion of the variation in DS accounted for by the variation in WAC, MSC, PFC, PAC, and PBAIC. H1 was evaluated based on the significance of t for P(tb1)<.05 the coefficient b1. H2 was evaluated based on the significance of t for P(tb1)<.05 the coefficient b2.
Cultural Identity and Perception of Dangerousness 29
The dependent variable (DS), the independent variables (IV) related to the five cultural
identity categories, and the variables age, gender, and education were used in the Correlation
Matrix illustrated in Table five.
Table 5 Correlations of Log Transformed DS and the Independent Variables (N=22)
Table # DS WAC MSC PFC PAC PBAIC Age Gender Education
DS 1.00
WAC -.584** 1.00
MSC .185 -.074 1.00
PFC .261 -.128 .213 1.00
PAC .423 -.177 .432* .671** 1.00
PBAIC -.010 -.126 .017 -.142 -.023 1.00
Age -.075 .219 -.323 -.383 -.447* .049 1.00
Gender -.021 -.139 .106 .185 .094 .083 -.097 1.00
Education -.073 .072 -.053 -.176 -.231 -.069 -.146 .183 1.00
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
NOTE: DS = Perception of Dangerousness WAC = White American or Anglo Cultural Identity MSC = Mexican American or Spanish Cultural Identity PFC = Predominate Filipino Cultural Identity PAC = Predominate Asian or Asian American Cultural Identity PBAIC = Predominate Black and American Indian Cultural Identity
Cultural Identity and Perception of Dangerousness 30
Upon conducting a correlation matrix assessing perceptions of dangerousness (DS)
among the variables of age, gender, education and the five independent variables (IV),
identification with White American or Anglo culture (WAC), identification with Mexican
American or Spanish culture (MSC), predominate identification with Filipino culture (PFC),
predominate identification with Asian or Asian American culture (PAC), and predominate
identification with Black and American Indian cultures (PBAIC), the demographic
characteristics of gender and education, as well as identification with Black and American Indian
cultures did not convey any evidence of a correlation with any of the variables. Therefore,
gender, education, and PBAIC were removed.
Multiple Regression Analysis
Two regression analyses were conducted. One analysis contained the remaining four
cultural variables (IV), age, and the dependent variable (DV) dangerousness which was not
statistically significant. The second analysis was conducted with only the hypothesized variables.
The results of the first regression analysis (Table 6) demonstrate the effects of DS, WAC,
MSC, PFC, PAC, and age (F (5, 17)=3.02, p<.044, R2=.50). Of the five independent variables
estimated in the model, Mexican American or Spanish cultural identification (MSC),
predominate Filipino cultural identification (PFC), predominate Asian or Asian American
cultural identification (PAC), and age were not statistically significant. However, the relationship
between affiliation with White American or Anglo cultural (WAC) and perception of
dangerousness (DS) was statistically significant (r = .708, p = .008). Identification with White
American or Anglo culture (WAC) was negatively associated with perception of dangerousness
(DS).
Cultural Identity and Perception of Dangerousness 31
Since there was no evidence of statistically significant correlations between any other
variables, MSC, PAC, and age were removed from the analysis. Therefore, the second
regression, as demonstrated in Table seven was conducted using only the two hypothesized
variables.
Table 6
Multiple Regression of log on DS*, WAC, MSC, PFC, PAC, and Age R2 = .50, F(5, 17) = 3.02, p< .044 Variable B SE b Beta t p(t) WAC -2.918 .955 -.602 -3.054 .008 MSC .374 1.742 .044 .215 .833 PFC .097 2.260 .011 .043 .966 PAC 2.279 1.595 .386 1.428 .174 Age .118 .078 .324 1.505 .153
The second regression (Table 7) was conducted using only the variables WAC and PFC.
Results of this analysis indicate a statistically significant relationship between WAC and DS (r =
.606, p = .009). The relationship between affiliation with White American or Anglo cultural was
found to be negatively associated with perception of dangerousness. Therefore, the more an
individual identified with White American or Anglo Culture the less they perceived persons with
a diagnosis of mental illness as being dangerous.
Cultural Identity and Perception of Dangerousness 32
_____________________________________________________________________________ Table 7
Multiple Regression of log on DS*, WAC, PFC
R2 = .37, F(2, 20) = 5.24, p< .016 Variable B SE b Beta t p(t) WAC -2.693 .922 -.556 -2.921 .009 PFC 1.504 1.730 .165 .869 .396 Tests of Hypotheses
The two hypotheses set forth and the results of the hypotheses tested are reviewed below
Hypothesis #1: It was hypothesized that perceptions of dangerousness is negatively associated
with Filipino American cultural identification.
Hypothesis #1 was not supported by the analysis. Perceptions of dangerousness were not
associated with Filipino American participants.
Hypothesis #2: It was hypothesized that perceptions of dangerousness would be positively
associated with White American or Anglo cultural identification.
Hypothesis #2 was not supported by the analysis; rather perceptions of dangerousness were
negatively associated with White American or Anglo cultural identification.
The results of this study suggest that culture was significantly related to perceptions of
dangerousness. Identification with White American or Anglo (WAC) cultural identity accounted
for 37% of the variance when predicting perceptions of dangerousness of individuals with mental
illness.
Cultural Identity and Perception of Dangerousness 33
Figure 2
White-American Cultural
Identification
Predominate Filipino Cultural
Identification
Perception of Dangerousness ns
__
-.556
ns
Cultural Identity and Perception of Dangerousness 34
Chapter Four
Discussion
This study examined the relationship between cultural identity and perceptions of
dangerousness of persons diagnosed with mental illness. It was hypothesized that perceptions of
dangerousness would be negatively associated with Filipino or Filipino American (FAM)
cultural affiliation and that perceptions of dangerousness would be positively associated with
White American or Anglo (WAC) cultural identification. However, the results of this study did
not support these hypotheses.
Contrary to the proposed hypotheses there was no statistically significant relationship
between predominate identity with Filipino culture (PFC) and perceptions of dangerousness
(DS). However, findings conclude there was a negative association between WAC and DS
suggesting the more an individual identifies with White American or Anglo culture (WAC), the
less likely they are to view persons with mental illness as being dangerous. Overall, the model
indicates there is a relationship between cultural identity and perception of dangerousness.
Implications for Past Theory and Research
Results from the current study support the outcomes reported in similar research on
stigma associated with mental health diagnoses. In Corrigan and Watson’s (2007) study on
stigma of psychiatric disorders, nonwhite participants were more likely to than whites to endorse
stigma.
In contrast with studies assessing the effects of gender and education on perceptions of
mental illness, the current study did not support such research. While several studies conclude
that higher education decreases the likelihood of stigmatizing mental illness, there was no
Cultural Identity and Perception of Dangerousness 35
significant relationship between education and perception of dangerousness in the current study.
In addition, gender was not a significant variable in relation to perception of dangerousness.
Limitations
While the current data suggests there is a relationship between cultural identification and
perceptions of dangerousness, there are several limitations to this study. The sample size (N=22)
used in this study was small, and is under representative of Filipino American and American
culture as a whole. In addition, the selected participants constitute a convenience sample.
Therefore, one can not discount the possibility that the outcome of this study was due to
unidentified participant characteristics. Replication of this study using random sampling with a
larger subject population would be beneficial.
Additionally, when assessing cultural identification, the cultural identity of Pacific
Islander was not included. Literature pertaining to Filipino American identity indicates that some
Filipinos self identify as Pacific Islanders (Tuason et al., 2007; Chandras et al, 1999). As an
ethnic affiliation, Pacific Islanders differentiate themselves from other Asian American groups
based on several characteristics including having knowledge of the English language (the second
official language of the Philippines) and predominate affiliation with the Catholic religion,
unlike other Asian sub-groups who mainly practice Buddhism or Confucianism (Tuason et al.,
2007). Therefore it would be worthwhile to include the ethnic affiliation of Pacific Islander in
future research assessing the cultural identity of Filipino Americans.
Furthermore, cultural identification was measured using an orthogonal model. This study
did not examine the specific degree to which each individual participant identified with White
American or Anglo cultural (WAC). In consideration of potential acculturation effects on
Cultural Identity and Perception of Dangerousness 36
cultural content post immigration, it may be beneficial to investigate perceptions of
dangerousness in regard to the extent participants individually affiliate with WAC.
Implications for Future Research
Current research on Asian American ethnic groups documents a void of information
regarding the Filipino American mental health profile in the United States. It has been well
established that a lack of culturally appropriate mental health services for all Asian ethnic groups
exists in the U.S. In addition, research indicates that cultural conceptions of mental illness
influences help seeking behaviors. Therefore, additional research is necessary to examine and
understand potential relationships between culture and the conceptualization of illness,
perceptions of mental health, and cultural differences in symptom expression, patterns of service
utilization, and diagnosis and treatment of mental disorders (Link, Phelan, Bresnahan, Stueve, &
Pescosolido, 1999; Edman & Kameoka, 1997; Speller, 2005).
Given the unique culture of the Philippines, the influx of Filipinos immigrating to the
United States, and the cultural variability within Filipino sub-groups, there is a considerable need
to conduct research that distinguishes Filipino Americans from other Asian American ethnicities.
In addition, as the ethnic diversity within the United States continues to expand, the need for
research about these ethnic groups in relation to their immigration experiences, as well as
culturally indigenous belief systems, will be an important factor for establishing effective
cultural centered mental health services for Asian Americans and other ethnic groups.
Cultural Identity and Perception of Dangerousness 37
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Cultural Identity and Perception of Dangerousness 41
Appendix
Pilot Study Questionnaire
Part I. Unang Parte Today’s Date Ang Petsa Ngayon _______/______/_______ Mo. Day Yr. (Buan) (Araw) (Taon) 1. Gender: 1=Male 2=Female Kasarian Lalake Babae 2. On what date were you born? Anong petsa ka pinanganok? _______/______/_______ Mo. Day Yr. (Buan) (Araw) (Taon) 3. Where were you born? Saan ka pinanganak? [GEOGRAPHIC LOCATION Tiyak na kinalalagyan, i.e. TOWN Bayan, PROVINCE Probinsiya, CITY Lunsod, STATE] ______________________________________________________________________________ 4. Where do you live now? Saan ka ngayan nakatira? [GEOGRAPHIC LOCATION Tiyak na kinalalagyan, i.e. TOWN Bayan, PROVINCE Probinsiya, CITY Lunsod, STATE] ______________________________________________________________________________ 5. What is your current Marital Status? 1 = Never Married 2 = Married Ano ang iyong estado sa buhay? (Binata o Dalaga) (Kasal)
3 = Widowed 4 = Divorced (Biyudo o Biyuda) (Diborsyado o Diboryada)
5 = Separated 6 = Live-in-partner (Hiwalay) (Kinakasama sa bahay) 8 = Other Iba pa ___________________________
Cultural Identity and Perception of Dangerousness 42
6. What is your highest level of education completed? Bago ngayon, ano ang pinaka-mataas na grado ng pag-aaral ang iyong nakumpleto?
0 = No school Hindi nakapag-aral 1 = Grade school Elementarya 2 = Some high school Konting high school 3 = High school diploma/GED certificate High School Diploma o ano mang Katumbas 4 = Some college Konting kolehiyo 5 = Bachelor’s degree 6 = Some graduate school Konting graduate school 7 = Master’s degree 8 = Professional degree (i.e. Ph.D., RN, M.D., etc.) 9 = Other Iba pa _________________________________ 7a. Are you going to school now? Ikaw ba ay nag-aaral sa eskuwelahan ngayon? _______ 1 = Yes 2 = No [If no, skip to question 7] 7b. What is your field of study? Anong kurso ang iyong pinag-aaralan?
_____________________________________________ 8. Are you currently employed? Nagtatrabaho ka ba ngayon? 1 = Yes, full-time Oo pultaym 2 = Yes, part-time Oo pultaym 3 = Seasonally 4 = No, I choose not to work at this time Hinde, pinili kong hinde magtrabaho 5 = No, I am laid-off from work Hinde, natanggal ako sa trabaho 6 = No, I cannot find suitable employment Hinde, walang angkop na trabaho 7 = No, I am retired Hinde, reterido 8 = No, other Hinde, ibang dahilan ___________________________________ 9. Do you have a religious or spiritual affiliation? ______ Mayroong ka bang kinasasa-lihang relihiyion o paniniwala?
1 = Yes Oo [If yes, go to question 10] [Kung oo, sagutan ang ika- 10] 2 = NO Wala
Cultural Identity and Perception of Dangerousness 43
10. What is your religious or spiritual affiliation? Ano ang iyong relihiyon o paniniwala? Select [write] all that apply: _________________________ Piliin [isulat] ang tumutungkol sa’yo ___________________________ 1 = Catholic Katoliko 2 = Protestant (Methodist, Baptist, Presbyterian, etc.) Protestante (Methodist, Baptist,Presbyterian, atbp.) 3 = Mormon (Church of Latter Day Saints) Mormon (Church of Latter Day Saints) 4 = Jehovah’s Witness Saksi ni Hoba 5 = Jewish Hudyo 6 = Buddhist 7 = Muslim 8 = Hinduism 9 = Other Iba pa ___________________________________ 11. [If more than one type selected above] Which one is most important to you right now? [Kung mahigit sa isa ang napili] Alin ang pinaka-importante sa iyo ngayon? [write the number listed above] ______ [isulat ang numero na nakalista sa itaas] _______ 12. What is the extent to which you practice this religious or spiritual affiliation? Gaano kadalas mo sinasanay ang iyong pananampalataya sa iyong relihiyon o paniniwala?
1 = a little Kaunti 2 = somewhat Hindi gaanong madalas 3 = a lot Madalas
Cultural Identity and Perception of Dangerousness 44
Part II. Pangalawang Parte The following questions ask how close you are to different cultures. When answering the
questions about “family”, think about the family that is most important to you now. How would you define that family? You can include your current family, your family of origin, or both. Answer the questions keeping that definition in mind. You may identify with more than one culture, so please mark all responses that apply to you.
Ang sumusunod na mga katanungan ay tumutukoy kung gaano kayo kalapit sa iba't-ibang kultura. Kapag sumasagot ng tanong tunkol sa 'pamilya', isaisip ang pamilya na mahalaga sa iyo ngayon. Paano mo bibigyang kahulugan ang pamilyang ito? Pwede mong isama ang pamilya mo ngayon, ang iyong mga magulang at kanilang magulang o pareho. Sagutan ang mga tanong na nasa isip ito. Maari kang makaugnay sa mahigit isang kultura, markahan ang lahat ng naangkop sa iyo.
Cultural Identity and Perception of Dangerousness 45
1. Some families have special activities or traditions that take place every year at particular time (such as holiday parties, special meals, religious activities, trips, or visits). How many of these special activities or traditions does your family have that are based on… 1. May ilang pamilya na mayroong selebrasyon o tradisyon na ipagdiriwang taun-taon sa ibat'-ibang panahon (katulad ng piyesta opisyal, piyesta ng mga patron, pasyal, bisita o bakasyon). Ilan sa mga okasyon na ito na mayroon ang iyong pamilya na batay sa .... A lot
Marami Some Kaunti
A few Mas Kaunti
None at all Wala
White American or Anglo Culture Amerikano (puti) kultura
Asian or Asian American culture Asiano o Asianong Amerikanong kultura
Mexican American or Spanish culture Mexicano Amerikano o Espanyol/Kastila na kultura
Black or African American culture
American-Indian culture
Filipino or Filipino American culture Filipino o Fil-Am kultura
Tagalog or Filipino culture Tagalog o Pilipinong kultura
Cebuano or Filipino Cuture Cebuano o Pilipinong kultura
Ilocano or Filipino culture Ilocano o Pilipinong kultura
Bikolano or Filipino culture Bikolano o Pilipinong kultura
Ilonggo or Filipino culture Ilonggo o Pilipinong kultura
Waray or Filipino culture Waray o Pilipinong kultura
Kapampangan or Filipino culture Kapampangan o Pilipinong kultura
Pangasinenses or Filipino culture Pangasinenses o Pilipinong kultura
Chinese-Filipino culture Intsik-Pilipino kultura
Other culture Ibang kultura
Cultural Identity and Perception of Dangerousness 46
2. In the future, with your own family, will you do special things together or have special traditions, which are based on… 2. Sa hinaharap, sa iyong pamilya, may balak ka bang magkaroon ng selebrasyon o tradisyon na batay sa... A lot
Marami Some Kaunti
A few Mas Kaunti
None at all Wala
Asian or Asian American culture Asiano o Asianong Amerikanong kultura
Mexican American or Spanish culture Mexicano Amerikano o Espanyol/Kastila na kultura
Black or African American culture
American-Indian culture
Filipino or Filipino American culture Filipino o Fil-Am kultura
Tagalog or Filipino culture Tagalog o Pilipinong kultura
Cebuano or Filipino Cuture Cebuano o Pilipinong kultura
Ilocano or Filipino culture Ilocano o Pilipinong kultura
Bikolano or Filipino culture Bikolano o Pilipinong kultura
Ilonggo or Filipino culture Ilonggo o Pilipinong kultura
Waray or Filipino culture Waray o Pilipinong kultura
Kapampangan or Filipino culture Kapampangan o Pilipinong kultura
Pangasinenses or Filipino culture Pangasinenses o Pilipinong kultura
Chinese-Filipino culture Intsik-Pilipino kultura
White American or Anglo Culture Amerikano (puti) kultura
Other culture Ibang kultura
Cultural Identity and Perception of Dangerousness 47
3. Does your family live by or follow the… 3. Ang pamilya mo ba ay namumuhay o sumusunod sa....
A lot
Marami Some Kaunti
A few Mas Kaunti
None at all Wala
Mexican American or Spanish culture Mexicano Amerikano o Espanyol/Kastila na kultura
Black or African American culture
American-Indian culture
Filipino or Filipino American culture Filipino o Fil-Am kultura
Tagalog or Filipino culture Tagalog o Pilipinong kultura
Cebuano or Filipino Cuture Cebuano o Pilipinong kultura
Ilocano or Filipino culture Ilocano o Pilipinong kultura
Bikolano or Filipino culture Bikolano o Pilipinong kultura
Ilonggo or Filipino culture Ilonggo o Pilipinong kultura
Waray or Filipino culture Waray o Pilipinong kultura
Kapampangan or Filipino culture Kapampangan o Pilipinong kultura
Pangasinenses or Filipino culture Pangasinenses o Pilipinong kultura
Chinese-Filipino culture Intsik-Pilipino kultura
White American or Anglo Culture Amerikano (puti) kultura
Asian or Asian American culture Asiano o Asianong Amerikanong kultura
Other culture Ibang kultura
Cultural Identity and Perception of Dangerousness 48
4. Do you live by or follow the… 4. Ikaw ba namumuhay o sumusunod sa... A lot
Marami Some Kaunti
A few Mas Kaunti
None at all Wala
Black or African American culture
American-Indian culture
Filipino or Filipino American culture Filipino o Fil-Am kultura
Tagalog or Filipino culture Tagalog o Pilipinong kultura
Cebuano or Filipino Cuture Cebuano o Pilipinong kultura
Ilocano or Filipino culture Ilocano o Pilipinong kultura
Bikolano or Filipino culture Bikolano o Pilipinong kultura
Ilonggo or Filipino culture Ilonggo o Pilipinong kultura
Waray or Filipino culture Waray o Pilipinong kultura
Kapampangan or Filipino culture Kapampangan o Pilipinong kultura
Pangasinenses or Filipino culture Pangasinenses o Pilipinong kultura
Chinese-Filipino culture Intsik-Pilipino kultura
White American or Anglo Culture Amerikano (puti) kultura
Asian or Asian American culture Asiano o Asianong Amerikanong kultura
Mexican American or Spanish culture Mexicano Amerikano o Espanyol/Kastila na kultura
Other culture Ibang kultura
Cultural Identity and Perception of Dangerousness 49
5. Is your family a success in the… 5. Ang pamilya mo ba ay matagumpay sa.... A lot
Marami Some Kaunti
A few Mas Kaunti
None at all Wala
Filipino or Filipino American culture Filipino o Fil-Am kultura
Tagalog or Filipino culture Tagalog o Pilipinong kultura
Cebuano or Filipino Cuture Cebuano o Pilipinong kultura
Ilocano or Filipino culture Ilocano o Pilipinong kultura
Bikolano or Filipino culture Bikolano o Pilipinong kultura
Ilonggo or Filipino culture Ilonggo o Pilipinong kultura
Waray or Filipino culture Waray o Pilipinong kultura
Kapampangan or Filipino culture Kapampangan o Pilipinong kultura
Pangasinenses or Filipino culture Pangasinenses o Pilipinong kultura
Chinese-Filipino culture Intsik-Pilipino kultura
White American or Anglo Culture Amerikano (puti) kultura
Asian or Asian American culture Asiano o Asianong Amerikanong kultura
Mexican American or Spanish culture Mexicano Amerikano o Espanyol/Kastila na kultura
Black or African American culture
American-Indian culture
Other culture Ibang kultura
Cultural Identity and Perception of Dangerousness 50
6. Are you a success in the… 6. Ikaw ba ay matagumpay sa... A lot
Marami Some Kaunti
A few Mas Kaunti
None at all Wala
Tagalog or Filipino culture Tagalog o Pilipinong kultura
Cebuano or Filipino Cuture Cebuano o Pilipinong kultura
Ilocano or Filipino culture Ilocano o Pilipinong kultura
Bikolano or Filipino culture Bikolano o Pilipinong kultura
Ilonggo or Filipino culture Ilonggo o Pilipinong kultura
Waray or Filipino culture Waray o Pilipinong kultura
Kapampangan or Filipino culture Kapampangan o Pilipinong kultura
Pangasinenses or Filipino culture Pangasinenses o Pilipinong kultura
Chinese-Filipino culture Intsik-Pilipino kultura
White American or Anglo Culture Amerikano (puti) kultura
Asian or Asian American culture Asiano o Asianong Amerikanong kultura
Mexican American or Spanish culture Mexicano Amerikano o Espanyol/Kastila na kultura
Black or African American culture
American-Indian culture
Filipino or Filipino American culture Filipino o Fil-Am kultura
Other culture Ibang kultura
Cultural Identity and Perception of Dangerousness 51
Part III. Ikatlong Parte Based on your own knowledge and personal beliefs, please check any of the following answers that apply. Batay sa iyong pagkakaalam at personal na paniniwala, tsekan kung alin sa sumusunod ang nararapat na sagot. Which of the following is/are mental illness? Alin sa sumusunod ang pagkukulang sa isip? Yes
Oo No Hinde
Don’t Know Hinde ko alam
Phobia
Anxiety disorder
Neurasthenia/Shinkeisuijaku
Mania
Depression (Depresyon)
Schizophrenia
Mental Retardation
Suicide
Somatazation disorder
Speech and language disorders
Substance abuse/dependence
Amok
Koro/ fuk-yeoung
Mali-mali/ Latah
Silok
Psychosis
Cultural Identity and Perception of Dangerousness 52
Signs and/or symptoms of mental illness include? Tanda at/o sintomas ng pagkukulang ng isip? Yes
Oo No Hinde
Don’t Know Hinde ko alam
Worrying (Nag-aalala)
Nervousness (Pagkakaba)
Sadness/loneliness (Kalungkutan)
Hopelessness (Nawalan ng pag-asa)
Unkempt (Pagpabaya sa sarili)
Hallucinations (seeing or hearing things that are not there) (Naka-kita o nakaka-rinig ng mga bagay na sa guni-guni lang totoo.)
Violent Aggression (Bayolenteng Pagka-agresibo)
Delusions (false beliefs) (Maling paniniwala)
Having trouble with sleeping or eating (too much or too little) (Hirap sa pag-tulog o pag-kain [kaontian o karamihan])
Feeling guilty (Makaramdam ng pagsisisi)
Poor concentration (Hindi lubos ang konsentrasyon)
Anxiety (Pagkabalisa)
Irrational fear (Walang kahulugang pangamba)
Moodiness or brooding (Sumpong)
Addiction to drugs/alcohol (Adiksyon sa bawal na gamot o alcohol)
Cultural Identity and Perception of Dangerousness 53
Which of the following is/are possible treatment for mental illness? Alin sa mga sumusunod ang (mga) posibleng lunas para sa pagkukulang sa isip? Yes
Oo No Hinde
Don’t Know Hinde ko alam
Prayer (Dasal)
Family care giving (Pag-aalaga ng pamilya)
Indigenous healer (Albolaryo)
Psychiatric medications (Gamot na nireseta ng doctor)
Herbs (Gamot na halaman)
Psychotherapy
Psychiatric hospitalization (Ipasok sa ospital)
Community support (Suporta ng komunidad)
Long-term institutionalization (confinement to a mental hospital) (Pang-mahabaang pamamalagi sa ospital)
Spirituality (Espiritualidad)
Psychosocial rehabilitation (Rehabilitasyon)
Massage (Hilot)
Meditation (Magnilay-nilay/Magbulay-bulay)
Job training (Pag-sasanay sa trabaho)
Electro-convulsive therapy (ECT)
Outpatient clinical treatment
Home treatment care (Alaga sa bahay na binibigay ng nars)
Family education (Edukasyon para sa pamilya)
Cultural Identity and Perception of Dangerousness 54
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Cultural Identity and Perception of Dangerousness 55
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Cultural Identity and Perception of Dangerousness 56
Have you ever known someone with mental illness? Mayroon ka na bang nakilalang tao na may pagkukulang sa isip? Yes Oo No Hindi If you have known someone with mental illness, who are they? Kung mayroon ka ngang nakilala, sino sila? Self Aking sarili Family member Miyembro ng pamilya Friend Kaibigan Unspecified contact Hindi kakilala Patient in the hospital Pasyente ng ospital Neighbor Kapitbahay Unsure Hindi sigurado