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Americas History Seventh Edition
James A. Henretta Rebecca Edwards Robert O. Self Americas History
Seventh Edition CHAPTER 19 Civilizations Inferno: The Rise and
Reform of Industrial Cities, Copyright 2011 by Bedford/St. Martins
CHAPTER LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After you have read this chapter, you should be able to answer the
following questions: 1. What enabled American cities to grow so
dramatically during the nineteenth century? 2. How did
industrialization affect urbanization? 3. How did class structure,
ethnicity, and gender affect urban political affairs? 4. In what
ways were cities crucibles of urban reform? I. The New Metropolis
The Shape of the Industrial City 2. Skyscrapers
1.Mass Transit and the Suburb as cities grew larger, technology
assisted residents and visitors with travel electric trolley in
Richmond, VA (1887) Chicago and New York City had elevated
railroads Boston had an underground line (1897) railroads
contributed to the growth of the suburb, areas on the outskirts of
city where wealthy lived: commuters working class lived near cities
centers where they worked 2.Skyscrapers 3.The Electric City The New
Metropolis The Shape of the Industrial City Mass Transit and the
Suburb as cities grew larger, technology assisted residents and
visitors with travel; electric trolley in Richmond, VA (1887);
Chicago and New York City had elevated railroads; Boston had an
underground line (1897); railroads contributed to the growth of the
suburb, areas on the outskirts of city where wealthy lived:
commuters; working class lived near cities centers where they
worked; telephone (1876) connected suburban people to the cities.
Skyscrapers steel, glass, elevators changed buildings in downtown
areas; skyscraperswere expensive but a good use of small amounts of
land; Home Insurance Building (1885) in Chicago was first. The
Electric City gas lamps too dim for city streets; invention of the
incandescent bulb in 1879 changed urban life as night time was now
illuminated; urban life appeared safer and more appealing. 1st
Electric Car I. The New Metropolis The Shape of the Industrial
City
1.Mass Transit and the Suburb telephone (1876) connected suburban
people to the cities. 2.Skyscrapers 3.The Electric City The New
Metropolis The Shape of the Industrial City Mass Transit and the
Suburb as cities grew larger, technology assisted residents and
visitors with travel; electric trolley in Richmond, VA (1887);
Chicago and New York City had elevated railroads; Boston had an
underground line (1897); railroads contributed to the growth of the
suburb, areas on the outskirts of city where wealthy lived:
commuters; working class lived near cities centers where they
worked; telephone (1876) connected suburban people to the cities.
Skyscrapers steel, glass, elevators changed buildings in downtown
areas; skyscraperswere expensive but a good use of small amounts of
land; Home Insurance Building (1885) in Chicago was first. The
Electric City gas lamps too dim for city streets; invention of the
incandescent bulb in 1879 changed urban life as night time was now
illuminated; urban life appeared safer and more appealing. Chicagos
El Elevated railroads quickly became a familiar sight to city
dwellers. Most urban transit networks were operated by private
companies, and tensions over expensive fares ran high in many
cities. Nonetheless, such transit systems helped people negotiate
the great distances of the new metropolis. Jazz Age Chicago. The
Expansion of Chicago, 18651902
In 1865, Chicagoans depended on horsecar lines to get around town.
By 1900, the city limits had expanded enormously and so had the
streetcar service, which was by then electrified. Elevated trains
eased the congestion on downtown streets. Ongoing extension of the
streetcar lines, some beyond the city limits, ensured that suburban
development would continue as well. I. The New Metropolis The Shape
of the Industrial City 2. Skyscrapers
steel, glass, elevators changed buildings in downtown areas
skyscraperswere expensive but a good use of small amounts of land
Home Insurance Building (1885) in Chicago was first tall building
to use structural steel in its frame. Considered the world's first
skyscraper, it had 10 stories and rose to a height of 138. In 1890,
two additional floors were added. 3.The Electric City gas lamps too
dim for city streets invention of the incandescent bulb in 1879
changed urban life as night time was now illuminated urban life
appeared safer and more appealing. The New Metropolis The Shape of
the Industrial City Mass Transit and the Suburb as cities grew
larger, technology assisted residents and visitors with travel;
electric trolley in Richmond, VA (1887); Chicago and New York City
had elevated railroads; Boston had an underground line (1897);
railroads contributed to the growth of the suburb, areas on the
outskirts of city where wealthy lived: commuters; working class
lived near cities centers where they worked; telephone (1876)
connected suburban people to the cities. Skyscrapers steel, glass,
elevators changed buildings in downtown areas; skyscraperswere
expensive but a good use of small amounts of land; Home Insurance
Building (1885) in Chicago was first. The Electric City gas lamps
too dim for city streets; invention of the incandescent bulb in
1879 changed urban life as night time was now illuminated; urban
life appeared safer and more appealing. Home Insurance Building
(1885) I. The New Metropolis The Shape of the Industrial City
3.The Electric City gas lamps too dim for city streets invention of
the incandescent bulb in 1879 changed urban life as night time was
now illuminated urban life appeared safer and more appealing. The
New Metropolis The Shape of the Industrial City Mass Transit and
the Suburb as cities grew larger, technology assisted residents and
visitors with travel; electric trolley in Richmond, VA (1887);
Chicago and New York City had elevated railroads; Boston had an
underground line (1897); railroads contributed to the growth of the
suburb, areas on the outskirts of city where wealthy lived:
commuters; working class lived near cities centers where they
worked; telephone (1876) connected suburban people to the cities.
Skyscrapers steel, glass, elevators changed buildings in downtown
areas; skyscraperswere expensive but a good use of small amounts of
land; Home Insurance Building (1885) in Chicago was first. The
Electric City gas lamps too dim for city streets; invention of the
incandescent bulb in 1879 changed urban life as night time was now
illuminated; urban life appeared safer and more appealing. Lighting
Up Minneapolis, 1883 Like other American cities, Minneapolis at
night had been lit by dim gaslight until the advent of Charles F.
Brushs electric arc lamps. This photograph marks the opening day,
February 28, 1883, of Minneapoliss new era: the first lighting of a
257-foot tower topped by a ring of electric arc lamps. The electric
poles on the right, connecting the tower to a power station, would
soon proliferate into a blizzard of poles and overhead wires, as
Minneapolis became an electric city. Minnesota Historical
Society/CORBIS. Woolworth Building, New York City
Under construction in this photograph, taken between 1910 and 1913,
the headquarters of the nationwide Woolworths five-and-dime chain
became a dominant feature of the New York skyline. Manhattan soon
had more skyscrapers than any other city in the world. Library of
Congress. 5 and 10 in 1910 would be equivalent to $1. 25 and
$2
5 and 10 in 1910 would be equivalent to $1.25 and $2.50 today,
making Woolworth the precursor to todays dollar stores. Woolworth
went out of business in 1993. The Lower East Side, New York City,
1900
As this map shows, the Jewish immigrants dominating Manhattans
Lower East Side preferred to live in neighborhoods populated by
those from their home regions of Eastern Europe. Their sense of a
common identity made for a remarkable flowering of educational,
cultural, and social institutions on the Jewish East Side. Ethnic
neighborhoods became a feature of almost every American city.
(6.1.2.B) I. The New Metropolis Newcomers and Neighborhoods
1.Ethnic Neighborhoods (6.2.1.B) immigrants generally lived among
people of shared ethnicity: Irish in Boston, Swedes in Minneapolis,
Italians in Northeastern and Mid-Atlantic cities settled in
neighborhoods where churches, shops, schools met their cultural
needs. 2.African Americans turn of the century 90% of black
Americans lived in the South, but many were moving from rural to
urban areas in northern cities they faced discrimination and
violence race riots occurred in several northern cities (New York
1900; Evansville, IN, 1903; Springfield, IL, 1908). 3.Tenements
cheap housing, generally five to six stories, twenty or more
families; disease rampant; in New York Tenement House Law of 1901
required interior courts, indoor toilets, fire safety measures on
new buildings. The New Metropolis Newcomers and Neighborhoods
Ethnic Neighborhoods immigrants generally lived among people of
shared ethnicity: Irish in Boston, Swedes in Minneapolis, Italians
in Northeastern and Mid-Atlantic cities; settled in neighborhoods
where churches, shops, schools met their cultural needs. African
Americans turn of the century 90% of black Americans lived in the
South, but many were moving from rural to urban areas; in northern
cities they faced discrimination and violence; race riots occurred
in several northern cities (New York 1900; Evansville, IN, 1903;
Springfield, IL, 1908). Tenements cheap housing, generally five to
six stories, twenty or more families; disease rampant; in New York
Tenement House Law of 1901 required interior courts, indoor
toilets, fire safety measures on new buildings. 14 I. The New
Metropolis Newcomers and Neighborhoods
2.African Americans (6.2.1.A) turn of the century 90% of black
Americans lived in the South, but many were moving from rural to
urban areas in northern cities they faced discrimination and
violence race riots occurred in several northern cities (New York
1900; Evansville, IN, 1903; Springfield, IL, 1908). 3.Tenements
cheap housing, generally five to six stories, twenty or more
families; disease rampant; in New York Tenement House Law of 1901
required interior courts, indoor toilets, fire safety measures on
new buildings. The New Metropolis Newcomers and Neighborhoods
Ethnic Neighborhoods immigrants generally lived among people of
shared ethnicity: Irish in Boston, Swedes in Minneapolis, Italians
in Northeastern and Mid-Atlantic cities; settled in neighborhoods
where churches, shops, schools met their cultural needs. African
Americans turn of the century 90% of black Americans lived in the
South, but many were moving from rural to urban areas; in northern
cities they faced discrimination and violence; race riots occurred
in several northern cities (New York 1900; Evansville, IN, 1903;
Springfield, IL, 1908). Tenements cheap housing, generally five to
six stories, twenty or more families; disease rampant; in New York
Tenement House Law of 1901 required interior courts, indoor
toilets, fire safety measures on new buildings. Home damaged in
1908 Springfield Race Riot 15 The Cherry Family, 1906 Wiley and
Fannie Cherry migrated in 1893 from North Carolina to Chicago,
settling in the small African American community that had
established itself on the citys West Side. The Cherrys apparently
prospered. By 1906, when this family portrait was taken, they had
entered the black middle class. When migration intensified after
1900, longer-settled urban blacks like the Cherrys often became
uncomfortable, and relations with needy rural newcomers were
sometimes tense. Collection of Lorraine Heflin. The Atlanta Race
RiotSeen from France
The cover of this Paris newsmagazine depicts the Atlanta race riot
of While the artist had almost certainly never visited Atlanta, his
dramatic illustration shows that, from this early date, racial
violence could be a source of embarrassment to the United States in
its relations with other countries. Picture Research Consultants
& Archives. I. The New Metropolis Newcomers and Neighborhoods
3. Tenements
cheap housing, generally five to six stories, twenty or more
families disease rampant in New York Tenement House Law of 1901
required interior courts, indoor toilets, fire safety measures on
new buildings. The New Metropolis Newcomers and Neighborhoods
Ethnic Neighborhoods immigrants generally lived among people of
shared ethnicity: Irish in Boston, Swedes in Minneapolis, Italians
in Northeastern and Mid-Atlantic cities; settled in neighborhoods
where churches, shops, schools met their cultural needs. African
Americans turn of the century 90% of black Americans lived in the
South, but many were moving from rural to urban areas; in northern
cities they faced discrimination and violence; race riots occurred
in several northern cities (New York 1900; Evansville, IN, 1903;
Springfield, IL, 1908). Tenements cheap housing, generally five to
six stories, twenty or more families; disease rampant; in New York
Tenement House Law of 1901 required interior courts, indoor
toilets, fire safety measures on new buildings. 18 Floor Plan of a
Dumbbell Tenement
In a contest for a design that met an 1879 requirement for every
room to have a window, the dumbbell tenement won. The interior
indentation, which created an airshaft between adjoining buildings,
gave the tenement its dumbbell shape. But what was touted as a
model tenement demonstrated instead the futility of trying to
reconcile maximum land usage with decent housing. Each floor
contained four apartments of three or four rooms, the largest only
10 by 11 feet. The two toilets in the hall became filthy or broke
down under daily use by forty or more people. The narrow airshaft
provided almost no light for the interior rooms and served mainly
as a dumping ground for garbage. So deplorable were these tenements
that they became the stimulus for the next wave of New York housing
reform. City Garbage How to get rid of the garbage? was a question
that bedeviled every American city. The difficulties of keeping up
are all too clear in this ground-level photograph by the great
urban investigator Jacob Riis, looking down Tammany Street in New
York City circa Museum of the City of New York. I. The New
Metropolis City Cultures 1. Urban Amusements
vaudeville theater (1880s-1890s): patrons paid 25 cents to watch
live entertainment appealed to all classes 5 cents for movie at the
nickelodeons amusement parks (ex: Coney Island, NY) where people
rode the roller coasters, ate, and danced. 2.Ragtime music by
African American artists with a ragged rhythm, extremely popular
among audiences used to Victorian hymns and parlor songs Scott
Joplin most famous performer New York had more than 500 dance halls
by 1910 the blues became popular in NYC, taken from African
American folk music. 3.Sex and the City 4.Urban High Culture
5.Investigative Journalism The New Metropolis City Cultures Urban
Amusements vaudeville theater (1880s-1890s): patrons paid 25 cents
to watch live entertainment; appealed to all classes; 5 cents for
movie at the nickelodeons; amusement parks (ex: Coney Island, NY)
where people rode the roller coasters, ate, and danced. Ragtime
music by African American artists with a ragged rhythm, extremely
popular among audiences used to Victorian hymns and parlor songs;
Scott Joplin most famous performer; New York had more than 500
dance halls by 1910; the blues became popular in NYC, taken from
African American folk music. Sex and the City amusement parks,
theaters provided opportunities for dating that had not existed in
previous generations; less parental supervision; working girls
needed dates to treat, for some this meant exchanging sexual favors
for the date (charity girls); gay subculture developed in urban
areas with underground clubs; term queer was used by 1910. Urban
High Culture art and natural history museums, libraries, symphonies
grew out of wealthy patrons interests and donations; Andrew
Carnegie spent more than $32.7 million developing 1,000 libraries
nationwide. Investigative Journalism increased interest in reading
about current events, human-interest stories, sports, fashion, high
society; Sunday comics; yellow journalism was a derogatory term for
mass-market newspaper; sensationalism grew as owners competed for
sales (Joseph Pulitzer, William Randolph Hearst); papers played an
increasing role in investigating corruption in government;
muckrakers: negative term for those newspaper reporters accused of
drawing too much attention to negative stories. Amusement Park,
Long Beach, California The origins of the roller coaster go back to
LaMarcus Thompsons Switchback Railway, installed at New Yorks Coney
Island in 1884 and featuring gentle dips and curves. By 1900, when
the Jack Rabbit Race was constructed at Long Beach, California, the
goal was to create the biggest possible thrill. Angelenos journeyed
out by trolley to Long Beach not only to take a dip in the ocean
but also to ride the new roller coaster. The airplane ride in the
foreground is a further wrinkle on the peculiarly modern notion
that the way to have fun is to be scared to death. I. The New
Metropolis City Cultures 2. Ragtime
music by African American artists with a ragged rhythm, extremely
popular among audiences used to Victorian hymns and parlor songs
Scott Joplin most famous performer (click speaker to hear Joplins
hit The Entertainer ) New York had more than 500 dance halls by
1910 the blues became popular in NYC, taken from African American
folk music. 3.Sex and the City 4.Urban High Culture 5.Investigative
Journalism The New Metropolis City Cultures Urban Amusements
vaudeville theater (1880s-1890s): patrons paid 25 cents to watch
live entertainment; appealed to all classes; 5 cents for movie at
the nickelodeons; amusement parks (ex: Coney Island, NY) where
people rode the roller coasters, ate, and danced. Ragtime music by
African American artists with a ragged rhythm, extremely popular
among audiences used to Victorian hymns and parlor songs; Scott
Joplin most famous performer; New York had more than 500 dance
halls by 1910; the blues became popular in NYC, taken from African
American folk music. Sex and the City amusement parks, theaters
provided opportunities for dating that had not existed in previous
generations; less parental supervision; working girls needed dates
to treat, for some this meant exchanging sexual favors for the date
(charity girls); gay subculture developed in urban areas with
underground clubs; term queer was used by 1910. Urban High Culture
art and natural history museums, libraries, symphonies grew out of
wealthy patrons interests and donations; Andrew Carnegie spent more
than $32.7 million developing 1,000 libraries nationwide.
Investigative Journalism increased interest in reading about
current events, human-interest stories, sports, fashion, high
society; Sunday comics; yellow journalism was a derogatory term for
mass-market newspaper; sensationalism grew as owners competed for
sales (Joseph Pulitzer, William Randolph Hearst); papers played an
increasing role in investigating corruption in government;
muckrakers: negative term for those newspaper reporters accused of
drawing too much attention to negative stories. I. The New
Metropolis City Cultures 5. Investigative Journalism
3.Sex and the City amusement parks, theaters provided opportunities
for dating that had not existed in previous generations less
parental supervision working girls needed dates to treat, for some
this meant exchanging sexual favors for the date (charity girls)
gay subculture developed in urban areas with underground clubs term
queer was used by 1910. 4.Urban High Culture art and natural
history museums, libraries, symphonies grew out of wealthy patrons
interests and donations Andrew Carnegie spent more than $32.7
million developing 1,000 libraries nationwide. 5.Investigative
Journalism The New Metropolis City Cultures Urban Amusements
vaudeville theater (1880s-1890s): patrons paid 25 cents to watch
live entertainment; appealed to all classes; 5 cents for movie at
the nickelodeons; amusement parks (ex: Coney Island, NY) where
people rode the roller coasters, ate, and danced. Ragtime music by
African American artists with a ragged rhythm, extremely popular
among audiences used to Victorian hymns and parlor songs; Scott
Joplin most famous performer; New York had more than 500 dance
halls by 1910; the blues became popular in NYC, taken from African
American folk music. Sex and the City amusement parks, theaters
provided opportunities for dating that had not existed in previous
generations; less parental supervision; working girls needed dates
to treat, for some this meant exchanging sexual favors for the date
(charity girls); gay subculture developed in urban areas with
underground clubs; term queer was used by 1910. Urban High Culture
art and natural history museums, libraries, symphonies grew out of
wealthy patrons interests and donations; Andrew Carnegie spent more
than $32.7 million developing 1,000 libraries nationwide.
Investigative Journalism increased interest in reading about
current events, human-interest stories, sports, fashion, high
society; Sunday comics; yellow journalism was a derogatory term for
mass-market newspaper; sensationalism grew as owners competed for
sales (Joseph Pulitzer, William Randolph Hearst); papers played an
increasing role in investigating corruption in government;
muckrakers: negative term for those newspaper reporters accused of
drawing too much attention to negative stories. Dating I. The New
Metropolis City Cultures 5. Investigative Journalism
increased interest in reading about current events, human-interest
stories, sports, fashion, high society Sunday comics yellow
journalism was a derogatory term for mass-market newspaper
sensationalism grew as owners competed for sales (Joseph Pulitzer,
William Randolph Hearst) papers played an increasing role in
investigating corruption in government muckrakers: negative term
for those newspaper reporters accused of drawing too much attention
to negative stories. The New Metropolis City Cultures Urban
Amusements vaudeville theater (1880s-1890s): patrons paid 25 cents
to watch live entertainment; appealed to all classes; 5 cents for
movie at the nickelodeons; amusement parks (ex: Coney Island, NY)
where people rode the roller coasters, ate, and danced. Ragtime
music by African American artists with a ragged rhythm, extremely
popular among audiences used to Victorian hymns and parlor songs;
Scott Joplin most famous performer; New York had more than 500
dance halls by 1910; the blues became popular in NYC, taken from
African American folk music. Sex and the City amusement parks,
theaters provided opportunities for dating that had not existed in
previous generations; less parental supervision; working girls
needed dates to treat, for some this meant exchanging sexual favors
for the date (charity girls); gay subculture developed in urban
areas with underground clubs; term queer was used by 1910. Urban
High Culture art and natural history museums, libraries, symphonies
grew out of wealthy patrons interests and donations; Andrew
Carnegie spent more than $32.7 million developing 1,000 libraries
nationwide. Investigative Journalism increased interest in reading
about current events, human-interest stories, sports, fashion, high
society; Sunday comics; yellow journalism was a derogatory term for
mass-market newspaper; sensationalism grew as owners competed for
sales (Joseph Pulitzer, William Randolph Hearst); papers played an
increasing role in investigating corruption in government;
muckrakers: negative term for those newspaper reporters accused of
drawing too much attention to negative stories. Sensationalist
headlines sell more newspapers I. The New Metropolis City Cultures
5. Investigative Journalism
papers played an increasing role in investigating corruption in
government muckrakers: negative term for those newspaper reporters
accused of drawing too much attention to negative stories. The New
Metropolis City Cultures Urban Amusements vaudeville theater
(1880s-1890s): patrons paid 25 cents to watch live entertainment;
appealed to all classes; 5 cents for movie at the nickelodeons;
amusement parks (ex: Coney Island, NY) where people rode the roller
coasters, ate, and danced. Ragtime music by African American
artists with a ragged rhythm, extremely popular among audiences
used to Victorian hymns and parlor songs; Scott Joplin most famous
performer; New York had more than 500 dance halls by 1910; the
blues became popular in NYC, taken from African American folk
music. Sex and the City amusement parks, theaters provided
opportunities for dating that had not existed in previous
generations; less parental supervision; working girls needed dates
to treat, for some this meant exchanging sexual favors for the date
(charity girls); gay subculture developed in urban areas with
underground clubs; term queer was used by 1910. Urban High Culture
art and natural history museums, libraries, symphonies grew out of
wealthy patrons interests and donations; Andrew Carnegie spent more
than $32.7 million developing 1,000 libraries nationwide.
Investigative Journalism increased interest in reading about
current events, human-interest stories, sports, fashion, high
society; Sunday comics; yellow journalism was a derogatory term for
mass-market newspaper; sensationalism grew as owners competed for
sales (Joseph Pulitzer, William Randolph Hearst); papers played an
increasing role in investigating corruption in government;
muckrakers: negative term for those newspaper reporters accused of
drawing too much attention to negative stories. Jacob Riis
photograph of Street Arabs Who Said Muck Rake? A popular biographer
in the 1890s, Ida Tarbell turned her journalistic talents to
investigative journalism, or muckraking. The first installment of
what would become her book The History of the Standard Oil Company
appeared in McClures Magazine in November The serial was a
bombshell, with its exposure of the ruthless machinations used by
John D. Rockefeller in building up his fabulous petroleum fortune.
In this cartoon, Tarbell appears as a respectable ladybut note her
threatening muck rake and, further in the background, a cowering
President Theodore Roosevelt. That Roosevelt was paying attention,
the cartoon suggests, is apparent in the headline of the newspaper
she is reading. Drake Oil Well Museum. The New Metropolis 1. What
economic and technological factors shaped the development of cities
and urban life after 1860? How were the new cities different from
the typical city before 1860? The New Metropolis 1. What economic
and technological factors shaped the development of cities and
urban life after 1860? How were the new cities different from the
typical city before 1860? New cities included industrial factories
on the outskirts of the city, with working class housing arising in
a ramshackle fashion near the factories. The flight of the middle
class to distant suburbs increased over time. Electricity, the use
of steel to make buildings taller, mass transit, improvements to
sanitation and drinking water, the invention and use of the
telephone, and the creation of new institutions by immigrants
comprised the new American city of the late nineteenth century. The
city before 1860 lacked these technological developments, relied on
people walking to work rather than using mass transit, lacked the
major industrialization that arose after the Civil War, and was
built of wooden buildings that often caught fire. 2. What
conditions of life did immigrants and other newcomers face in
cities of this period? 2. What conditions of life did immigrants
and other newcomers face in cities of this period?
Immigrants and newcomers faced challenging conditions of dreary
industrial employment, poor tenement housing, and both residential
and voluntary segregation based on ethnicity. Some immigrant
groups, such as the Chinese and Asians in general, would suffer
unequal immigration laws. All immigrants founded self-held
organizations to survive in a challenging land. Some newcomers,
like blacks, experienced race riots by whites. Vaudeville and
Ragtime were forms of entertainment dominant in cities that
newcomers took part in. 3. What forms of elite and popular culture
developed in urban areas
3. What forms of elite and popular culture developed in urban
areas? How did they challenge prevailing traditions and values? 3.
What forms of elite and popular culture developed in urban
areas
3. What forms of elite and popular culture developed in urban
areas? How did they challenge prevailing traditions and values?
Elite culture included urban high culture of Carnegie-founded art
museums, the opera, and the symphony. Popular culture included
vaudeville and Ragtime music played on Broadway and Tin-Pan Ally in
New York City. Young people in cities created a youth culture based
on listening to music pioneered by African Americans and dancing
that expanded to include gay bars as part of a sexual experience
new to urban America. Amusement parks like Coney Island provided a
mass entertainment experience new to the working class. Protestant
natives were particularly aghast at the influence of immigrants and
blacks upon American culture through music, dance, and religion, as
well as the expansion of sexual behavior by working class youth
free from parental oversight in the new and crowded American city.
II. Governing the Great City
Urban Machines 1.Tammany Hall (6.2.1.D) well-organized political
party organizations referred to as machines viewed by the middle
class as corrupt Tammany Hall: NYC, led by George Washington
Plunkitt, who made deals for city contracts and services the honest
graft middle-class Americans were critical of immigrants support
for political machines, but immigrants needed the jobs and aid that
they provided in exchange for their political support. 2.Successes
and Failures The Limits of Machine Government 1.The Depression of
the 1890s 2.Programs Governing the Great City Urban Machines
Tammany Hall well-organized political party organizations referred
to as machines; viewed by the middle class as corrupt; Tammany
Hall: NYC, led by George Washington Plunkitt, who made deals for
city contracts and services; the honest graft; middle-class
Americans were critical of immigrants support for political
machines, but immigrants needed the jobs and aid that they provided
in exchange for their political support. Successes and Failures
built and/or improved public parks, markets, paved streets, clean
water, gaslight, sewerage removal; better organized municipal
agencies; massive public projects such as aqueducts, bridges;
limited in what the boss could do to stop widespread poverty; could
help the individual, but not the bigger causes of the problems. The
Limits of Machine Government The Depression of the 1890s cities
struggled to deal with the extreme growth in population; during
1890s unemployment reached 25% in some urban areas; homelessness
and hunger increased; middle-class reformers encouraged private
charity rather than public assistance; urban voters became
radicalized by the poverty forcing politicians to make changes to
their programs (ex: Clevelands mayoral race). Programs some
American mayors began to model programs after European successes:
public baths, gyms, swimming pools, playgrounds, free public
concerts, lowering fares for street car travel, efforts to reduce
crime and increase municipal ownership of gas and electricity. II.
Governing the Great City
Urban Machines 2.Successes and Failures built and/or improved
public parks, markets, paved streets, clean water, gaslight,
sewerage removal better organized municipal agencies massive public
projects such as aqueducts, bridges limited in what the boss could
do to stop widespread poverty could help the individual, but not
the bigger causes of the problems. The Limits of Machine Government
1.The Depression of the 1890s 2.Programs Governing the Great City
Urban Machines Tammany Hall well-organized political party
organizations referred to as machines; viewed by the middle class
as corrupt; Tammany Hall: NYC, led by George Washington Plunkitt,
who made deals for city contracts and services; the honest graft;
middle-class Americans were critical of immigrants support for
political machines, but immigrants needed the jobs and aid that
they provided in exchange for their political support. Successes
and Failures built and/or improved public parks, markets, paved
streets, clean water, gaslight, sewerage removal; better organized
municipal agencies; massive public projects such as aqueducts,
bridges; limited in what the boss could do to stop widespread
poverty; could help the individual, but not the bigger causes of
the problems. The Limits of Machine Government The Depression of
the 1890s cities struggled to deal with the extreme growth in
population; during 1890s unemployment reached 25% in some urban
areas; homelessness and hunger increased; middle-class reformers
encouraged private charity rather than public assistance; urban
voters became radicalized by the poverty forcing politicians to
make changes to their programs (ex: Clevelands mayoral race).
Programs some American mayors began to model programs after
European successes: public baths, gyms, swimming pools,
playgrounds, free public concerts, lowering fares for street car
travel, efforts to reduce crime and increase municipal ownership of
gas and electricity. II. Governing the Great City
The Limits of Machine Government 1.The Depression of the 1890s
cities struggled to deal with the extreme growth in population
during 1890s unemployment reached 25% in some urban areas
homelessness and hunger increased middle-class reformers encouraged
private charity rather than public assistance urban voters became
radicalized by the poverty forcing politicians to make changes to
their programs (ex: Clevelands mayoral race). 2.Programs Governing
the Great City Urban Machines Tammany Hall well-organized political
party organizations referred to as machines; viewed by the middle
class as corrupt; Tammany Hall: NYC, led by George Washington
Plunkitt, who made deals for city contracts and services; the
honest graft; middle-class Americans were critical of immigrants
support for political machines, but immigrants needed the jobs and
aid that they provided in exchange for their political support.
Successes and Failures built and/or improved public parks, markets,
paved streets, clean water, gaslight, sewerage removal; better
organized municipal agencies; massive public projects such as
aqueducts, bridges; limited in what the boss could do to stop
widespread poverty; could help the individual, but not the bigger
causes of the problems. The Limits of Machine Government The
Depression of the 1890s cities struggled to deal with the extreme
growth in population; during 1890s unemployment reached 25% in some
urban areas; homelessness and hunger increased; middle-class
reformers encouraged private charity rather than public assistance;
urban voters became radicalized by the poverty forcing politicians
to make changes to their programs (ex: Clevelands mayoral race).
Programs some American mayors began to model programs after
European successes: public baths, gyms, swimming pools,
playgrounds, free public concerts, lowering fares for street car
travel, efforts to reduce crime and increase municipal ownership of
gas and electricity. II. Governing the Great City
The Limits of Machine Government 2.Programs some American mayors
began to model programs after European successes: public baths,
gyms, swimming pools, playgrounds, free public concerts, lowering
fares for street car travel, efforts to reduce crime and increase
municipal ownership of gas and electricity. Governing the Great
City Urban Machines Tammany Hall well-organized political party
organizations referred to as machines; viewed by the middle class
as corrupt; Tammany Hall: NYC, led by George Washington Plunkitt,
who made deals for city contracts and services; the honest graft;
middle-class Americans were critical of immigrants support for
political machines, but immigrants needed the jobs and aid that
they provided in exchange for their political support. Successes
and Failures built and/or improved public parks, markets, paved
streets, clean water, gaslight, sewerage removal; better organized
municipal agencies; massive public projects such as aqueducts,
bridges; limited in what the boss could do to stop widespread
poverty; could help the individual, but not the bigger causes of
the problems. The Limits of Machine Government The Depression of
the 1890s cities struggled to deal with the extreme growth in
population; during 1890s unemployment reached 25% in some urban
areas; homelessness and hunger increased; middle-class reformers
encouraged private charity rather than public assistance; urban
voters became radicalized by the poverty forcing politicians to
make changes to their programs (ex: Clevelands mayoral race).
Programs some American mayors began to model programs after
European successes: public baths, gyms, swimming pools,
playgrounds, free public concerts, lowering fares for street car
travel, efforts to reduce crime and increase municipal ownership of
gas and electricity. Governing the Great City
1. What role did political machines play in city government? Do you
think they served the goals of representative democracy? Why, or
why not? Governing the Great City
1. What role did political machines play in city government? Do you
think they served the goals of representative democracy? Why, or
why not? Political machines functioned as a corrupt and narrow
system of patronage that brought insiders into city government who
paid officials enough bribes to be appointed or elected to
important city positions. While outwardly serving the goals of
representative democracy through the ordinary and daily business of
satisfying the wants of city residents, the system through which
men gained power in city offices, and over city services, was
corrupt and privileged personal loyalty over fulfilling the needs
of the people. Layers of functionaries recruited by party machines
gave the impression that city machines were responsible to the low
level concerns of city residents. City machines also passed out
favors and jobs, securing further support from the population.
Extensive public parks and markets, paved streets, gaslight, clean
water, and sewage removal were successes achieved by machines. 2.
What factors limited the effectiveness of machine government
2. What factors limited the effectiveness of machine government?
How did reformers try to address these limits? To what extent did
they succeed? 2. What factors limited the effectiveness of machine
government
2. What factors limited the effectiveness of machine government?
How did reformers try to address these limits? To what extent did
they succeed? Muckrakers exposed political machine, and industrial,
corruption by the late 1800s, leading to the downfall of many city
political machines, such as Tammany Hall. The quest for personal
gain limited the effectiveness of machines to serve the widest
possible number of city residents. Major recessions exposed the
ineffectiveness of machines to meet the daily needs of homeless and
the poor. Reform mayors began to oust machine politicians and
provide the kinds of services that machines had provided before,
such as building swimming pools and playgrounds. Reformers also
experimented with new ways of organizing municipal government. They
created commission systems and advisory boards to run city
government and services. Some cities were more successful than
others in adopting reform measures based on the driving force of
reform-orientated mayors. Opposition from private business often
prevented reformers from acting out the full program of city
reform. III. Cities as Crucibles of Reform
Public Health 1.Disease late 19th-century Europeans began to
understand how to prevent disease, even if they could not yet cure
understood germs and bacteria initiatives for clean water in urban
areas of Massachusetts were able to decrease the number of deaths
from cholera, typhoid, yellow fever. 2.Pollution more noticeable in
urban areas than rural children played in trash, consumed
contaminated food, milk, water reformers made efforts to teach hand
washing to urban residents to stop tuberculosis publication of The
Jungle by Upton Sinclair (1906) increased concerns about the
meatpacking industry creation of Food and Drug Administration
(1906) to respond to concerns and ensure compliance with food and
drug safety laws. Cities as Crucibles of Reform Public Health
Disease late 19th-century Europeans began to understand how to
prevent disease, even if they could not yet cure; understood germs
and bacteria; initiatives for clean water in urban areas of
Massachusetts; were able to decrease the number of deaths from
cholera, typhoid, yellow fever. Pollution more noticeable in urban
areas than rural; children played in trash, consumed contaminated
food, milk, water; reformers made efforts to teach hand washing to
urban residents to stop tuberculosis; publication of The Jungle by
Upton Sinclair (1906) increased concerns about the meatpacking
industry; creation of Food and Drug Administration (1906) to
respond to concerns and ensure compliance with food and drug safety
laws. Clean water piped from the Catskills to NYC III. Cities as
Crucibles of Reform
Public Health 2.Pollution more noticeable in urban areas than rural
children played in trash, consumed contaminated food, milk, water
reformers made efforts to teach hand washing to urban residents to
stop tuberculosis publication of The Jungle by Upton Sinclair
(1906) increased concerns about the meatpacking industry creation
of Food and Drug Administration (1906) to respond to concerns and
ensure compliance with food and drug safety laws. Cities as
Crucibles of Reform Public Health Disease late 19th-century
Europeans began to understand how to prevent disease, even if they
could not yet cure; understood germs and bacteria; initiatives for
clean water in urban areas of Massachusetts; were able to decrease
the number of deaths from cholera, typhoid, yellow fever. Pollution
more noticeable in urban areas than rural; children played in
trash, consumed contaminated food, milk, water; reformers made
efforts to teach hand washing to urban residents to stop
tuberculosis; publication of The Jungle by Upton Sinclair (1906)
increased concerns about the meatpacking industry; creation of Food
and Drug Administration (1906) to respond to concerns and ensure
compliance with food and drug safety laws. III. Cities as Crucibles
of Reform
Campaigns Against Urban Prostitution 1.White Slavery allegations
that white women were being kidnapped into sex industry were
overstated, but led to reform efforts investigations found that low
wages, sexual and domestic abuse were likely causes of a woman
working as a prostitute efforts made to reduce the demand for
prostitutes (punish men) were unpopular. 2.Vice Commissions early
1900s effort to close down brothels and red-light districts Mann
Act (1910) prohibited the transport of a prostitute across state
lines commissions closed brothels but worsened conditions for women
who continued to work in the sex industry. Cities as Crucibles of
Reform Campaigns Against Urban Prostitution White Slavery
allegations that white women were being kidnapped into sex industry
were overstated, but led to reform efforts; investigations found
that low wages, sexual and domestic abuse were likely causes of a
woman working as a prostitute; efforts made to reduce the demand
for prostitutes (punish men) were unpopular. Vice Commissions early
1900s effort to close down brothels and red-light districts; Mann
Act (1910) prohibited the transport of a prostitute across state
lines; commissions closed brothels but worsened conditions for
women who continued to work in the sex industry. 44 The Crusade
against White Slavery
With the growth of large cities, prostitution was a major cause of
concern in the Progressive Era. Though the number of prostitutes
per capita in the United States was probably declining by 1900, the
presence of red light districts was obvious; thousands of young
women (as well as a smaller number of young men) were exploited in
the sex trade. This image appeared in The Great War on White
Slavery, published by the American Purity Foundation in It
illustrates how immigrant women could be ensnared in the sex trade
by alleged friends who offered them work. Reformers denunciations
of white slavery show an overt racial bias: While anti-prostitution
campaigners reported on the exploitation of Asian and African
American women, the victimization of white women received the
greatest emphasis and most effectively grabbed the attention of
prosperous, middle-class Americans. From The Great War on White
Slavery, by Clifford G. Roe, Courtesy Vassar College Special
Collections. FRIENDS MEETING EMIGRANT GIRL AT THE DOCK the girl was
met at New York by two friends who took her in charge. These
friends were two of the most brutal of all the white slave traders
who are in the traffic. -U.S. Dist. Attorney Edwin W. Sims Foreign
girls are more helplessly at the mercy of white slave hunters than
girls at home. Every year thousands of girls arriving in America
from Italy, Swedes, Germany, etc., are never heard of again III.
Cities as Crucibles of Reform
Campaigns Against Urban Prostitution 2.Vice Commissions early 1900s
effort to close down brothels and red-light districts Mann Act
(1910) prohibited the transport of a prostitute across state lines
commissions closed brothels but worsened conditions for women who
continued to work in the sex industry. Cities as Crucibles of
Reform Campaigns Against Urban Prostitution White Slavery
allegations that white women were being kidnapped into sex industry
were overstated, but led to reform efforts; investigations found
that low wages, sexual and domestic abuse were likely causes of a
woman working as a prostitute; efforts made to reduce the demand
for prostitutes (punish men) were unpopular. Vice Commissions early
1900s effort to close down brothels and red-light districts; Mann
Act (1910) prohibited the transport of a prostitute across state
lines; commissions closed brothels but worsened conditions for
women who continued to work in the sex industry. 46 III. Cities as
Crucibles of Reform
The Movement for Social Settlements 1.Hull House (6.3.2.B)
settlement houses viewed as one of the most successful reforms of
the Progressive Era most famous was in Chicago, started by Jane
Addams and Ellen Gates Starr (1889), modeled after London
settlement Toynbee Hall community center to aid immigrants in
gaining the resources they needed to survive in the city helped
give the community a voice offered a bathhouse, playground,
kindergarten, daycare in some cities settlements were linked to or
worked with colleges/universities to offer education. 2.Resources
and Influence City and National Politics 1.Triangle Shirtwaist Fire
2.Resulting Reforms Cities as Crucibles of Reform The Movement for
Social Settlements Hull House settlement houses viewed as one of
the most successful reforms of the Progressive Era; most famous was
in Chicago, started by Jane Addams and Ellen Gates Starr (1889),
modeled after London settlement Toynbee Hall; community center to
aid immigrants in gaining the resources they needed to survive in
the city; helped give the community a voice; offered a bathhouse,
playground, kindergarten, daycare; in some cities settlements were
linked to or worked with colleges/universities to offer education.
Resources and Influence opened libraries, gymnasiums, employment
assistance, savings banks, cooperative kitchens, assisted in
investigations of problems in local communities (ex: helped
establish juvenile court in Chicago); foundation of social work in
urban areas. City and National Politics Triangle Shirtwaist Fire
March 25, 1911, New York City; fire spread quickly through textile
factory where employers had locked doors to prevent theft (in
violation of city fire laws); 146 deaths, average victim only 19
years old. Resulting Reforms New York State Factory Commission
created 56 laws for fire hazards, machinery, industrial homework,
wages for women and children; creation of an advanced labor code.
Jane Addams Hull House Center. Where Mr. Segal learned how to swim.
Sadly it closed in 2012 and now houses the Lakeshore Athletic Club
($500 initiation and $180/mo.). Irony much? Saving the Children In
the early years at Hull House, Jane Addams recalled, toddlers
sometimes arrived for kindergarten tipsy from a breakfast of bread
soaked in wine. To settlement-house workers, the answer to such
harmful practices lay in education, and so began the program of
sending visiting nurses into immigrant homes. Nurses taught mothers
the proper methods of caring for children including, as this
photograph shows, the daily infant bath, given in a dishpan if
necessary. Chicago Historical Society. Hull House Playground,
Chicago, 1906 When this postcard was made, the City of Chicagos
Small Parks Commission had just taken over management of the
playground from settlement workers at Hull House, who had created
it. In a pattern repeated in many cities, social settlements
introduced new institutions and ideassuch as safe places for urban
children to playand inspired municipal authorities to assume
responsibility and control. Private Collection. III. Cities as
Crucibles of Reform
The Movement for Social Settlements 2.Resources and Influence
opened libraries, gymnasiums, employment assistance, savings banks,
cooperative kitchens, assisted in investigations of problems in
local communities (ex: helped establish juvenile court in Chicago)
foundation of social work in urban areas. City and National
Politics 1.Triangle Shirtwaist Fire March 25, 1911, New York City;
fire spread quickly through textile factory where employers had
locked doors to prevent theft (in violation of city fire laws) 146
deaths, average victim only 19 years old. 2.Resulting Reforms New
York State Factory Commission created 56 laws for fire hazards,
machinery, industrial homework, wages for women and children
creation of an advanced labor code. Cities as Crucibles of Reform
The Movement for Social Settlements Hull House settlement houses
viewed as one of the most successful reforms of the Progressive
Era; most famous was in Chicago, started by Jane Addams and Ellen
Gates Starr (1889), modeled after London settlement Toynbee Hall;
community center to aid immigrants in gaining the resources they
needed to survive in the city; helped give the community a voice;
offered a bathhouse, playground, kindergarten, daycare; in some
cities settlements were linked to or worked with
colleges/universities to offer education. Resources and Influence
opened libraries, gymnasiums, employment assistance, savings banks,
cooperative kitchens, assisted in investigations of problems in
local communities (ex: helped establish juvenile court in Chicago);
foundation of social work in urban areas. City and National
Politics Triangle Shirtwaist Fire March 25, 1911, New York City;
fire spread quickly through textile factory where employers had
locked doors to prevent theft (in violation of city fire laws); 146
deaths, average victim only 19 years old. Resulting Reforms New
York State Factory Commission created 56 laws for fire hazards,
machinery, industrial homework, wages for women and children;
creation of an advanced labor code. III. Cities as Crucibles of
Reform
D. City and National Politics 1.Triangle Shirtwaist Fire March 25,
1911, New York City; fire spread quickly through textile factory
where employers had locked doors to prevent theft (in violation of
city fire laws) 146 deaths, average victim only 19 years old.
Cities as Crucibles of Reform The Movement for Social Settlements
Hull House settlement houses viewed as one of the most successful
reforms of the Progressive Era; most famous was in Chicago, started
by Jane Addams and Ellen Gates Starr (1889), modeled after London
settlement Toynbee Hall; community center to aid immigrants in
gaining the resources they needed to survive in the city; helped
give the community a voice; offered a bathhouse, playground,
kindergarten, daycare; in some cities settlements were linked to or
worked with colleges/universities to offer education. Resources and
Influence opened libraries, gymnasiums, employment assistance,
savings banks, cooperative kitchens, assisted in investigations of
problems in local communities (ex: helped establish juvenile court
in Chicago); foundation of social work in urban areas. City and
National Politics Triangle Shirtwaist Fire March 25, 1911, New York
City; fire spread quickly through textile factory where employers
had locked doors to prevent theft (in violation of city fire laws);
146 deaths, average victim only 19 years old. Resulting Reforms New
York State Factory Commission created 56 laws for fire hazards,
machinery, industrial homework, wages for women and children;
creation of an advanced labor code. III. Cities as Crucibles of
Reform
D. City and National Politics 2.Resulting Reforms (6.1.1.C) New
York State Factory Commission created 56 laws for fire hazards,
machinery, industrial homework, wages for women and children
creation of an advanced labor code. Cities as Crucibles of Reform
The Movement for Social Settlements Hull House settlement houses
viewed as one of the most successful reforms of the Progressive
Era; most famous was in Chicago, started by Jane Addams and Ellen
Gates Starr (1889), modeled after London settlement Toynbee Hall;
community center to aid immigrants in gaining the resources they
needed to survive in the city; helped give the community a voice;
offered a bathhouse, playground, kindergarten, daycare; in some
cities settlements were linked to or worked with
colleges/universities to offer education. Resources and Influence
opened libraries, gymnasiums, employment assistance, savings banks,
cooperative kitchens, assisted in investigations of problems in
local communities (ex: helped establish juvenile court in Chicago);
foundation of social work in urban areas. City and National
Politics Triangle Shirtwaist Fire March 25, 1911, New York City;
fire spread quickly through textile factory where employers had
locked doors to prevent theft (in violation of city fire laws); 146
deaths, average victim only 19 years old. Resulting Reforms New
York State Factory Commission created 56 laws for fire hazards,
machinery, industrial homework, wages for women and children;
creation of an advanced labor code. Cities and National Politics
1
Cities and National Politics 1. If you had lived in a large
American city in the post-Civil War decades, might you have joined
any of the reform movements working to improve public health,
morals, and welfare? If not, why not? If so, which ones, and why?
Cities and National Politics
1. If you had lived in a large American city in the post-Civil War
decades, might you have joined any of the reform movements working
to improve public health, morals, and welfare? If not, why not? If
so, which ones, and why? Students may say that they would join the
reforms to curb the problem of public sanitation and safe drinking
water, a problem that impacted all city residents of the late
nineteenth century, particularly children and immigrants living in
tenements. Reforming public health appears to be the most
non-partisan part of the history of city reform. 2. What were the
goals of the founders of social settlements
2. What were the goals of the founders of social settlements? How
did those goals evolve, and what roles did settlements play in city
life? 2. What were the goals of the founders of social
settlements
2. What were the goals of the founders of social settlements? How
did those goals evolve, and what roles did settlements play in city
life? The goals were to provide an outlet for the talents and
energies of elite and middle class white women who wanted to
improve the lives of immigrants and other city newcomers
experiencing the challenges of city life. Over time, these goals
evolved from working directly with and for working class women, to
assisting the entire working class family weather city conditions.
Jane Addams Hull House in Chicago had evolved from American
missions and also Toynbee Hall, a London settlement. Settlements
provided an outlet for working class people and immigrants to
improve their lives and adjust to challenging city conditions.
Settlements served cities by feeding, advising, and even sometimes
housing city residents. 3. What effect did the Triangle Fire have
on politics
3. What effect did the Triangle Fire have on politics? Why do you
think its impact was so wide-ranging? 3. What effect did the
Triangle Fire have on politics
3. What effect did the Triangle Fire have on politics? Why do you
think its impact was so wide-ranging? The Triangle Fire in New York
shook up city reformers and launched an invigorated attempt to
improve corporate safety conditions throughout cities in the
Northeast. The impact of the fire was wide-ranging because the fire
killed 146 people, most of them young women whose average age was
19. Many of the young women had jumped out the windows of the
building to try to survive the fire. The carnage of young women
motivated a generation of reformers to improve the responsiveness
of city government to industrial and urban conditions in a variety
of forms. Chapter Review Questions
1. What were the major features of industrial cities that arose in
the United States in the late nineteenth and early twentieth
centuries? What institutions and innovations helped make urban life
distinctive? Chapter Review Questions
1. What were the major features of industrial cities that arose in
the United States in the late nineteenth and early twentieth
centuries? What institutions and innovations helped make urban life
distinctive? Electric lighting, mass public transit, skyscrapers,
plate glass, steel girder construction, elevators, manufacturing
centers, suburbs, and massive numbers of immigrants defined city
life. Urban life was made distinctive through cutting edge
technology, mass transportation, mass production, mass marketing,
and mass entertainment. 2. What were the limitations and the
achievements of urban governments run by ethnic political machines?
2. What were the limitations and the achievements of urban
governments run by ethnic political machines? Achievements included
putting people to work by creating jobs through political
patroniage, creating smoothing functioning city services, such as
garbage, sewer, water, gas, electric lighting, licensing of small
businesses, police, fire, and public health and disease protection.
Limitations of machines included massive corruption, graft,
manipulation of elections, subversion of social justice,
abandonment of black neighborhoods and other people of color,
inability to manage city growth, and an inability to manage high
level unemployment in times of economic stress. 3. Why did so many
reform initiatives of the early twentieth century emerge in large
cities? What were some of those initiatives, and what was their
political impact? 3. Why did so many reform initiatives of the
early twentieth century emerge in large cities? What were some of
those initiatives, and what was their political impact? Reform
initiatives appeared in large cities for a variety of reasons,
including the fact that cities contained the most noticeable
industrial-created problems for society. Cities also contained
large amounts of capital as well as media to pay for and reveal
problems requiring reform campaigns to improve. Moreover, cities
contained the concentration of immigrants, industry, and commerce
that produced victims of capitalism and subjects for reform
campaigns. These campaigns included anti-trust, public heath,
anti-prostitution, social settlements, and reform of elections
through recall and referendum. Their impact was profound, though
the Supreme Court dismantled many of the anti-trust and political
reforms deemed too costly to American corporations.