Post on 30-Dec-2015
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Actual Gender Differences
• There are a number of documented gender differences
– Exs: aggression, activity level, compliance, emotional expressivity
But:
• Relatively few documented differences
– Gender stereotypes suggest more differences than are actually documented by research
• Even documented differences are relatively small in size
– Average performance of males and females is not extremely different
Gender Typing
• Process by which a child:
– Becomes aware of his or her gender
– Acquires information about the characteristics and behavior viewed as appropriate for males or females (gender stereotypes)
– Acquires the characteristics and behaviors viewed as appropriate for either males or females (gender roles)
Developmental Trends in Gender Typing
• By 2.5 to 3 years, children label their own sex and that of other people
• Do not yet understand that sex is a permanent characteristic
Development of Gender Stereotypes
• By 2.5 years, children have some knowledge of gender stereotypes
• Over the preschool/early school years, learn more about toys, activities, and achievement domains considered appropriate for boys versus girls– Ex (achievement): boys are good at math;
girls are good at English
• By late elementary school, children know gender stereotypes associated with psychological characteristics (personality traits)
– Ex: males are assertive, aggressive, ambitious; females are emotional, nurturing, dependent
• Preschoolers’ gender stereotypes tend to be rigid
– Don’t usually realize that characteristics associated with sex (e.g., activities, clothing) don’t determine whether one is male or female
• May be one reason they treat gender stereotypes as “rules” rather than as beliefs
• By elementary school, children’s gender stereotypes are more flexible
– Understand that stereotypes are beliefs, not “rules”
– But older children do not necessarily approve of “cross-gender” behavior
Development of Gender Role Behavior
• Gender-stereotyped toy preferences are present by 14 months and continue to develop through the preschool years
• Gender segregation develops by ages 2 to 3 years
– Tendency to associate with same-sex playmates
• Typically lasts until around the onset of puberty
• Gender Intensification: A magnification of sex differences early in adolescence
– Associated with increased pressure to conform to traditional gender roles (from parents, peers)
– Gender intensification declines over the course of adolescence
Biological Influences on Gender Typing
(Hormonal Influences)
• Experimental animal studies indicate that exposure to androgens (male sex hormones):
– Increases active play in male and female mammals
– Promotes male-typical sexual behavior and aggression and suppresses maternal caregiving behavior in a wide variety of species
Humans:
• Cannot do experimental research for ethical reasons
– Correlational research
• In boys, naturally occurring variations in androgen levels are positively correlated with
– Amount of rough-and-tumble play
– Levels of physical aggression
• Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH)
– Disorder in which child is exposed to high levels of androgens from the prenatal period onward
– Compared to girls without CAH, girls with CAH show
• Higher activity levels• Greater interest in “male-typical” toys, activities,
and occupations• Better spatial/mathematical abilities
Environmental Influences on Gender Typing
• Social Learning Theory
– Gender typing results from
• Observational learning– By watching male and female “models”, children learn
“appropriate” appearance, activities/occupations, and behavior for each sex
• Rewards and punishments associated with gender-typed behavior
– Rewards for conforming to appropriate gender role and lack of rewards and/or punishment for failure to conform
Parental Behavior
• On average, data suggest that differences in parental treatment of boys and girls are not large
• Does not mean that parental behavior is unimportant because:
– Younger children receive more direct “training” from parents about gender roles than do older children
– Parents vary in the extent to which they practice differential treatment
Evidence for Differential Treatment
• Some data indicate that parents – Provide gender-stereotyped toys (e.g.,
vehicles, dolls)– Are more responsive when children engage in
“gender-appropriate” play
• But data are not always consistent across studies – Parents also provide gender-neutral toys for
children
• Gender-stereotyped toys may encourage different behaviors, characteristics, or abilities in males and females
– Parents give toys that encourage action and competition to boys (e.g., toy weapons, toy vehicles, construction toys and tools, sports equipment)
– Parents give toys that encourage nurturance, cooperation, and physical attractiveness to girls (e.g., dolls/stuffed animals, toy dishes, jewelry, jump ropes)
• Other evidence indicates that parents encourage different behaviors in boys and girls
– More likely to encourage independence in boys
• Respond more positively when boys demand attention, are highly active, or try to take toys from others
• More likely to – Refuse or ignore a son’s request for help– Challenge boys in teaching situations (e.g., offer
scientific explanations, ask high-level questions)– Assign household chores that are outside the house
(e.g., yard work, taking out the trash)
– More likely to encourage closeness and dependence in girls
• More likely to:
– Direct play activities – Provide help – Engage in conversations– Talk about emotions– Assign chores inside the house
• Differential treatment of boys and girls may be relatively subtle
– Data indicate gender differences in parent-child communication
– Parents more likely to offer scientific explanations to sons than to daughters (at a museum)
• Ex: “When you turn that fast, it makes more electricity” versus “Turn that handle”
– Mothers more likely to give boys greater freedom (autonomy) to make decisions
• Ex: “When do you think would be a good time for you to do your music practice?” versus “Do your practicing right after dinner”
Parental Beliefs
• Parental beliefs are likely to influence parental behavior toward children
– Ex: On average, parents rate sons as more competent in math/science than daughters even when there is no difference in performance
• Parents’ beliefs about their children’s abilities in specific areas/subjects are related to children’s
– Self-perceptions of their abilities in those subjects
– Effort in those subjects
– Later performance in those subjects
Cognitive Developmental Theory (Kohlberg)
• Three Stages:
– Basic Gender Identity:
• Recognition that one is a boy or a girl
– Emerges between 2.5 and 3 years
– Gender Stability
• Understanding that gender is stable over time
– Emerges between 3 and 5 years
– Gender Constancy/Consistency
• Understanding that gender is constant/consistent across situations regardless of appearance or activities
– Emerges between 5 and 7 years
• Kohlberg: Gender constancy leads to gender typing
– Why is this incorrect?
• Gender typing begins before children have achieved gender constancy
Gender Schema Theory:
• Children construct gender schemas
– Organized mental representations incorporating information about gender
• Include children’s own experiences and information conveyed by others, including gender stereotypes
• Schemas are dynamic—change as children acquire additional information
• Once children achieve basic gender identity, they are motivated to acquire gender-typed behavior and characteristics
– Young children start with a simple “in-group/out-group” gender schema
• Motivated to prefer, pay attention to, and remember more about others of their own sex
– Form an “own-sex” schema—detailed knowledge about their own gender
Evidence: Gender Schema Theory
• Children used gender labels given to toys to guide their behavior
– Gender-neutral, unfamiliar toys/objects labelled as “for girls” or “for boys”
• Children prefer the toys/objects consistent with their gender
• Children show biases in their memory for information about gender
– More likely to accurately remember information that is consistent with gender stereotypes
– More likely to forget or distort information that is inconsistent with gender stereotypes