LANGUAGE EDUCATION I (Units 1 to 3)UNIT 1Teaching by Princi!es" #ro$n% &' Do(g!as ()**1)C&APTE+ ,COGNITIVE PRINCIPLESThe first set of principles is called cognitive eca!se the" relate #ainl" to#ental and intellect!al f!nctions$ Principle %& '!to#aticit"Thro!gh an ind!ctive process of e(pos!re to lang!age inp!t and opport!nit"to e(peri#ent )ith o!tp!t* children appear to learn lang!ages )itho!t thin+ingao!t the#$ The Principle of '!to#aticit" incl!des the i#portance of& S!conscio!s asorption of lang!age thro!gh #eaningf!l !se* Efficient and rapid #ove#ent a)a" fro# a foc!s on the for#s of lang!ageto a foc!s on the p!rposes to )hich lang!age is p!t* Efficient and rapid #ove#ent a)a" fro# capacit",li#ited control of a fe)its andpieces to a relativel" !nli#iteda!to#atic #ode of processinglang!age for#s* and Resistance to the te#ptation to anal"-e lang!age for#s$The Principle of '!to#aticit" #a" e stated as follo)s& Efficient second lang!age learning involves a ti#el" #ove#ent of the controlof a fe)lang!age for#s into the a!to#atic processing of a relativel"!nli#itedn!#eroflang!agefor#s$ Overanal"singlang!age* thin+ingtoo#!ch ao!t its for#s* and conscio!sl" lingering on r!les of lang!age all tendto i#pede this grad!ation to a!to#aticit"$ The principle sa"s that ad!lts can ta+e a lesson fro# children " speedil"overco#ing o!r propensit" to pa" too #!ch focal attention to the its and pieces oflang!age and to #ove lang!age for#s .!ic+l" to the peripher" " !sing lang!age ina!thentic conte(ts for #eaningf!l p!rposes$ In classroo#& 1' /eingtooheavil"centeredonthefor#al aspectsoflang!agecanloc+path)a"s to fl!enc"$)' 'large proportion of "o!r lessons sho!ld e foc!sed on the !se oflang!age for p!rposes that are gen!ine$ 3' /e patient )ith st!dents to help the# achieve fl!enc"$Principle 0& 1eaningf!l Learning1eaningf!l learning s!s!#es ne) infor#ation into e(isting str!ct!res and#e#or" s"ste#s and the res!lting associative lin+s create stronger retention$ Rotelearning2isolatedpiecesofinfor#ationthataren3tconnectedtothee(istingcognitive str!ct!re 2 has little chance of creating long,ter# retention$The Principle of 1eaningf!l Learning is stated& 1eaningf!l learning)ill leadto)ardetterlong,ter#retentionthanrotelearning$ In classroo#& 1' 'ppeal to st!dents3 interests* acade#ic goals and career goals$)' 4henintrod!cingane)topic* atte#pttoanchoritinst!dents3 e(isting+no)ledge and ac+gro!nd$3' 'void the pitfalls of rote learning&a' too #!ch gra##ar e(planationsb' too #!ch astract principles and theoriesc' too #!ch drilling and5or #e#ori-ation -' !nclear activitiese' activities that don3t contri!tetoacco#plishing thegoals of thelesson* !nit or co!rse.' techni.!es too #echanic and tric+" Principle 6& The 'nticipation of Re)ard 7S+inner8Theanticipation of re)ardis the #ost po)erf!l factor in directing one3sehavio!r$ The Re)ard Principle is stated& 9!#an eing are !niversall" driven to act* or ehave* " the anticipation ofso#e sort of re)ard 2 tangile or intangile* short ter# or long ter# 2 that)ill ens!e as a res!lt of the ehavio!r$ Conditioning " re)ards can 7a8 lead learners to eco#e dependent on short,ter# re)ards*78 coa( the# into a hait of loo+ing to teachers and others fortheir onl"re)ards* andtherefore7c8 forestall thedevelop#ent oftheiro)ninternall" ad#inistered* intrinsic s"ste# of re)ards$In classroo#& 1' Provide an opti#al degree of i##ediate veral praise and enco!rage#ent tothe# as a for# of short,ter# re)ard$)' Enco!rage st!dents to re)ard each other )ith co#pli#ents and s!pportiveaction$3' In classes )ith ver" lo) #otivation* short,ter# re#inders of progress #a"help st!dents$7Gold stars and stic+ers* privileges for good )or+* progresscharts and graphs* etc$8$,' :ispla" enth!sias# and e(cite#ent "o!rself$/' Tr" to get learners to see the long,ter# re)ards in learning English$ Principle ;& Intrinsic 1otivationThe Intrinsic 1otivation Principle is& The #ost po)erf!l re)ards are those that are intrinsicall" #otivated )ithinthelearner$ /eca!setheehavio!rste#sfro#needs* )ants* ordesires)ithin oneself* the ehavio!r itself is self,re)arding therefore* noe(ternall" ad#inistered re)ard is necessar"$ In classroo#&1' Consider caref!ll" the intrinsic #otives of "o!r st!dents$)' :esign classroo# tas+s that feed into those intrinsic drives$ 7self,re)ardingclasses8Principle >ECTIVE PRINCIPLESPrinciple ?& Lang!age EgoThe Lang!age Ego Principle can e s!##ari-ed in this clai#& 'sh!#aneingslearnto!seasecondlang!age* the"alsodevelopane)#ode of thin+ing* feeling* and acting 2 a second identit"$ The ne) lang!ageego* intert)ined)iththesecondlang!age* caneasil"create)ithinthelearner a sense of fragilit"* a defensiveness* and a raising of inhiitions The Lang!age Ego Principle also called )ar# and f!--" principles& all secondlang!age learners need to e treated )ith affective tender living care$ In classroo#&1' Overtl" displa" a s!pportive attit!de to "o!r st!dents$ )' @o!r choice of techni.!es and se.!ences of techni.!es needs to ecognitivel" challenging !t not over)hel#ing at an affective level$ 3' If "o!r st!dents are learning English as a second lang!age* the" are li+el" toe(perience a #oderate identit" crisis as the" develop a second self$ 9elpthe# see that this is a nor#al and nat!ral process$Principle A& Self,ConfidenceThis Principlee#phasi-es thei#portanceof thelearner3s self,assess#ent*regardless of the degree of lang!age,ego involve#ent$ It states& Learners3 elief that the" indeed are f!ll" capale of acco#plishing a tas+ isat least partiall" a factor in their event!al s!ccess in attaining the tas+$In classroo#&1' Give a#ple veral and nonveral ass!rances to st!dents$ It helps st!dentsto hear a teacher affir# a elief in the st!dent3s ailit"$)' Se.!ence techni.!es fro# easier to #ore diffic!lt$Principle B& Ris+,Ta+ingTheprevio!s0principles* ifsatisfied* "thegro!nd)or+forris+,ta+ing$Learners are read" to tr" o!t their ne)l" ac.!ired lang!age* to !seit for#eaningf!l p!rposes* to as+ .!estions* and to assert the#selves$ It states& S!ccessf!l lang!agelearners* intheirrealisticappraisal ofthe#selvesasv!lneraleeings"et capaleofacco#plishingtas+s* #!st e)illingtoeco#ega#lers inthega#eoflang!age* toatte#pttoprod!ceandinterpret lang!age that is a it e"ond their asol!te certaint"$ In classroo#&1' Create an at#osphere in the classroo# hat enco!rages st!dents to tr" o!tlang!age to vent!re a response* and not to )ait for so#eone else tovol!nteer lang!age$)' Provide reasonale challenges in "o!r techni.!es$3' Respond to st!dents3 ris+" atte#pts )ith positive affir#ations$Principle C& The Lang!age,C!lt!re ConnectionThis principle foc!ses on the co#ple( interconnection of lang!age and c!lt!re& 4henever "o! tech a lang!age* "o! also teach a co#ple( s"ste# of c!lt!ralc!sto#s* val!es* and )a"s of thin+ing* feeling* and acting$ In classroo#&1' :isc!ss cross,c!lt!ral differences )ith "o!r st!dents* e#phasi-ing that noc!lt!re is etter than another$ )' Incl!de certain activities and #aterials that ill!strate the connectionet)een lang!age and c!lt!re$3' Teach the# the c!lt!ral connotations of lang!age$,' :on3t !se #aterial that is c!lt!rall" offensive$' second aspect of the Lang!age,C!lt!re Connections is the e(tent to )hich"o!r st!dents )ill e affected " the process of acc!lt!ration$ Especiall"insecondlang!agelearningconte(ts* thes!ccess)ith)hichlearners adapt to a ne) c!lt!ral #ilie! )ill affect their lang!age ac.!isitions!ccess* and vice versa* in so#e possil" significant )a"s$ In classroo#&1' 9elp st!dents to e a)are of acc!lt!ration and its stages$)' Stress the i#portance of the second lang!age as a po)erf!l tool forad=!st#ent in the ne) c!lt!re$3' /e sensitive to an" st!dents )ho appear to e disco!raged$ LINGDISTIC PRINCIPLESPrinciple %E& The Native Lang!age EffectThe Principle of the Native Lang!age Effect stresses the i#portance of thatnative s"ste# in the ling!istic atte#pts of the second lang!age learner& The native lang!age of learners e(erts a strong infl!ence on the ac.!isitionof the target lang!age s"ste#$ 4hile that native s"ste# )ill e(ercise othfacilitating and interfering effects on the prod!ction and co#prehension ofthe ne) lang!age* the interfering effects are li+el" to e the #ost salient$Errorsare)indo)stoalearner3sinternali-ed!nderstandingofthesecondlang!age* and therefore the" give teachers so#ething oservale to reach to$In classroo#&1' Regard learners3 errors as i#portant )indo)s to their !nderl"ing s"ste#and provide appropriate feedac+ on the#$)' To !nderstandthatnotever"thing ao!t their native lang!ages!ste#)ill ca!se error$3' Tr"tocoa(st!dentsintothin+inginthesecondlang!ageinsteadofresorting to translation as the" co#prehend and prod!ce lang!age$Principle %%& Interlang!ageIt states& Secondlang!agelearnerstendtogotoas"ste#aticor.!asi,s"ste#aticdevelop#ental processasthe"progresstof!ll co#petenceinthetargetlang!age$ S!ccessf!l Interlang!age develop#ent is partiall" a res!lt of!tili-ing feedac+ fro# others$There is a distinction et)een affective and cognitive feedac+$ The for#er* isthe e(tent to )hich )e val!e or enco!rage a st!dent3s atte#pt to co##!nicateF thelatter* isthee(tentto)hich)eindicateand!nderstandingofthe#essageitself$In classroo#&1' :isting!ish et)een a st!dent3s s"ste#atic Interlang!age errors and othererrors$)' E(ercise so#e tolerance for certain Interlang!age for#s #a" arise o!t ofst!dents3 logical develop#ent process$3' :on3t #a+e st!dent feel st!pid eca!se of an Interlang!age error$,' Classroo#feedac+#essagethat #ista+esarenot ad$ 1ista+esareoften indicators of aspects of the ne) lang!age that are still developing$/' Tr" to get st!dent to self,correct selected errors$0' '#ple affective feedac+ 7veral or nonveral8$1' Gindness and e#path"$Principle %0& Co##!nicative Co#petenceThis principle consists of so#e co#inations of the follo)ing co#ponents& Organi-ational co#petence 7gra##atical and disco!rse8 Prag#atic co#petence 7f!nctional and socioling!istic8 Strategic co#petence Ps"cho#otor s+illsThis is proal" the #ost i#portant ling!istic principle of learning ad teaching& Given that co##!nicative co#petence is the goalof a lang!age classroo#*instr!ction needs to point to)ard all its co#ponents& organi-ational*prag#atic* strategic* and ps"cho#otor$ Co##!nicative goals are estachieved"givingd!eattentiontolang!age!seandnot=!st !sage* tofl!enc"andnot=!stacc!rac"* toa!thentic lang!ageandconte(ts*and tost!dents3 event!al need to appl" classroo# learning to previo!sl"!nrehearsed conte(ts in the real )orld$In classroo#&1' Give gra##ar so#e attention* !t don3t neglect the other i#portantco#ponents$)' So#e of the prag#atic aspects of lang!age are ver" s!tle and thereforever" diffic!lt$ 1a+e s!re "o!r lessons ai# to teach s!ch s!tlet"$3' 4henteachingf!nctional andsocioling!isticaspects oflang!age* don3tforget that the ps"cho#otor s+ills are an i#portant co#ponents of oth$ ,' Give the# opport!nities to gain so#e fl!enc" in English )itho!t having ti econstantl" )ar" of little #ista+es$ /' Tr"to+eepever"techni.!ethat "o!!seasa!thenticispossile& !selang!age fro# the real )orld$C&APTE+ /Intrinsic 2oti3ation in the C!assroo4"Oneofthe#oreco#plicatedprole#sofsecondlang!agelearningandteaching has een to define and appl" the constr!ct of #otivation in the classroo#$:E>INING 1OTIV'TION1otivation is the e(tent to )hich "o! #a+e choice ao!t 7a8 goals to p!rs!eand78theeffort"o!)ill devotetothatp!rs!it$ 4ecanloo+attheoriesof#otivation in ter#s of t)o opposing ca#ps&one of the# is a traditionalvie) of#otivation that acco!nts for h!#an ehavio!r thro!gh a ehavio!ristic paradig#that stresses the i#portance of re)ards and reinforce#ents$ In the other ca#pare cognitive ps"chological vie)points that e(plain #otivation thro!gh deeper* lessoservale pheno#ena$ %$ ' /ehavio!ristic :efinition' ehavio!ristic ps"chologist li+e S+inner or 4atson )o!ld stress the roleof re)ards 7and p!nish#ents8 in #otivating ehavio!r$ In S+inner3s operantconditioning #odel* h!#an eings )ill p!rs!e a goal eca!se the" perceive a re)ardfor doing so$ This re)ard serves to reinforce ehavio!r 71H1theor" ofehavio!r8$' ehavio!rist )o!ld define #otivation as the anticipation ofreinforce#ent$Reinforce#enttheor"isapo)erf!l conceptfortheclassroo#$ Learnersp!rs!egoalsinordertoreceivee(ternall"ad#inisteredre)ards& praise* goldstars* etc$0$ Cognitive :efinitionsThere 6 different theories&A':rivetheor"& those)hoseeh!#andrivesas f!nda#ental toh!#anehavio!r clai# that #otivation ste#s fro# asic innate drives$ '!s!el created ?different drives& E(ploration 1anip!lation 'ctivit" Sti#!lation Gno)ledge Ego enhance#ent'll of these drives act not #!ch as reinforces !t as innatepredispositions* co#pelling !s to proe the !n+no)n* to control o!renviron#ent* to e ph"sicall" active* to e receptive to #ental* e#otional* orph"sical sti#!lation* to "earn for ans)ers to .!estions* and to !ild o! o)nself,estee#$#'9ierarch" of needs theor"& 1aslo) descries a s"ste# of needs )ithineach h!#an eing that propel !s to higher attain#ent$ 1aslo)3s hierarch" is estvie)ed #etaphoricall" as a p"ra#id of needs* progressing fro# the satisfaction ofp!rel" ph"sical needs !p thro!gh safet" and co##!nal needs* to needs of estee#*and finall" to self,act!ali-ation$' +e" i#portance here is that a person is not ade.!atel" energi-ed to p!rs!eso#e of the higher needs !ntilthe lo)er fo!ndations of the p"ra#id have eensatisfied$ >or an activit"in theclassroo#toe#otivating* it does not needtoo!tstandingl" stri+ing* innovative* or inspirational$ C'Self,control theor"& thei#portanceofpeopledecidingforthe#selves)hat to thin+orfeelor do$1otivationis highest )henonecan #a+e one3s o)nchoices* )heter the" are in short,ter# or long ter#,conte(ts$INTRINSIC 'N: EITRINSIC 1OTIV'TIONT)o i#portant points&1' Orientation #eans a conte(t or p!rpose for learningF #otivation refers tothe intensit" one3s i#pet!s to learn$ 'n integrative orientation #eans thatthe learner is p!rs!ing a second lang!age for social and5or c!lt!ral p!rposes)here the learner co!ld e driven " a high level of #otivation or a lo) level$In an instr!#ental orientation* learners are st!d"ing a lang!age in order tof!rther a career or acade#ic goal$)' Integrative and instr!#ental orientations are not to e conf!sed )ithintrinsic and e(trinsic #otivation$ Integrative5Instr!#ental orientation is atr!e dichoto#" and refers onl" to the conte(t of learning$Intrinsic5e(trinsic #otivation designates a contin!!#of possiilities ofintensit" of feeling or drive* fro# deepl" internal* self,generated re)ards tostrong* e(ternall" ad#inistered re)ards Ed)ard :eci defined intrinsic #otivation this )a"& Intrinsicall"#otivatedactivitiesareonesfor)hichthereisnore)arde(cept the activit" itself$ Intrinsicall" #otivated ehavio!rsareai#edatringing ao!t certain internall" re)arding conse.!ences* na#el"* feelings ofco#petence and self,deter#ination$ E(trinsicall" #otivated ehavio!rs are carried o!t in anticipation of a re)ardo!tside ande"ondthe self$ 7E(trinsic re)ards& #one"* pri-es* grades* etc8$/ehavio!rs initiated solel" to avoid p!nish#ent are also e(trinsicall" #otivated$ ' research sho)s that one t"pe of e(trinsic re)ard can indeed have an effecton intrinsic #otivation& the positive feedac+ that learners perceive as a oost totheir feelings of co#petence and self,deter#ination$INTRINSIC 1OTIV'TION IN E:DC'TION 'nintrinsicall"orientedschool canegintotransfor#itselfintoa#orepositive* affir#ingenviron#ent* not so#!ch"revol!tioni-ingsociet"!t "shifting its vie) of the st!dent$ >ro# e(trinsic to intrinsic #otivation in ed!cational instit!tions&E5T+IN6ICP+E66U+E6INT+IN6ICINNO7ATION62OTI7ATIONAL+E6ULT6School c!rric!l!# Learner,centeredPersonal goal,settingSelf,estee#Self,act!ali-ation:ecide for selfParental e(pectations >a#il" val!es Love* inti#ac"* acceptance* respect for )isdo#Societ"3s e(pectations 7confor#ist8Sec!rit" of co#fortale ro!tinesTas+,ased teachingCo##!nit"* elonging* identit"* har#on"* sec!rit"Tests H e(a#s Peer eval!ation*Self,diagnosisLevel,chec+ e(ercisesE(perienceSelf,+no)ledgeI##ediate gratification 71H1s8Long,ter# goalsThe ig pict!rethings ta+e ti#eSelf,act!ali-ation1a+e #one" Content,ased teaching* ESPVocational ed!cation4or+place ESLCooperation9ar#on"Co#petition Cooperative learningGro!p )or+The class is a tea#1anip!lations* strength* stat!s* sec!rit"Never fall Ris+,ta+ing* innovationCreativit"Learn fro# #ista+esNood"3s perfectINTRINSIC 1OTIV'TION IN T9 SECON: L'NGD'GE CL'SSROO1There are activities that capitali-e on the intrinsic " appealing to learners3 self,deter#ination and a!tono#"& Teaching )riting as a thin+ing process to develop o)n ideas$ Strategiesofreadingthatenale the#toring theirinfor#ationtothe)ritten )ord$ Lang!age e(perience approaches to create o)n reading #aterials for othersin class$ Oral fl!enc" e(ercises to tal+ ao!t their interests$ Listening to an acade#ic lect!re in one3s o)n field of st!d"$ Co##!nicative lang!age teaching to enale the#to acco#plishspecificf!nctions$ Gra##atical e(planations$T9EORETIC'L 'PPRO'C9ES TO EIPL'INING SECON: L'NGD'GE LE'RNINGSo#e theories give pri#ar" i#portance to learnersJ innate characteristicsF so#ee#phasi-e the essential role of the environ#ent in shaping lang!age learningF stillothers see+ to integrate learner characteristics and environ#ental factors in ane(planation for ho) second lang!age ac.!isition ta+es place$Learner characteristics'll second lang!age learners have at least one lang!age$ The learner has an idea ofho) lang!ages )or+$ Gno)ledge of other lang!ages can also #a+e learners to #a+eincorrect g!esses ao!t ho) the second lang!age )or+s and this #a" ca!se errors$The first lang!age learner does not have the sa#e cognitive #at!rit"*#etaling!istic* a)areness* or)orld +no)ledge as older secondlang!age learners$Secondlang!agelearners* the")ill still havefartogointheseareas* )orld+no)ledge$ 1ost child learners do not feel ao!t atte#pting to !se the lang!age* !t ad!ltsandadolescentsoftenfinditver"stressf!l )henthe"are!naletoe(pressthe#selves clearl" and correctl"$ Learning conditions@o!ngerlearners* infor#al secondlang!agelearning* !s!all"allo)edtoesilent!ntil the"areread"tospea+$ Olderlearnersareoftenforcedtospea+$ @o!ngchildren ininfor#alsettingare e(posedto thesecondlang!agefor #an" ho!rsever"da"$ Olderlearners* especiall"st!dentsinlang!ageclassroo#* are#oreli+el" to receive onl" li#ited e(pos!re to the second lang!age$Onecondition)hichappearstoeco##ontolearnersofall agesisaccessto#odified inp!t* so#eti#es called foreigner tal+ or teacher tal+ for secondlang!ages$ People )ho interact )ith lang!age learners have sense of )hatad=!st#ents are needed to help learners !nderstand$Error correction in first lang!age ac.!isition tends to e li#ited to corrections of#eaning* incl!ding errors in voca!lar" choice$ In infor#al second lang!ageac.!isition* errors #eaning are !s!all" overloo+ed$ Errors of gra##ar andpron!nciationarerarel"re#ar+edon* !tthe)rong)ordchoice#a"receiveco##ent fro# a p!--led interloc!tor$ The onl" place )here feedac+ on error ist"picall" present )ith high fre.!enc" is the lang!age classroo#$/ehavio!ris#The i#pact of ehavio!ris# on o!r !nderstanding of the second lang!age learning$ /ehavio!rists acco!nt for learning in ter#s of i#itation* practice* reinforce#entand hait for#ation all learning ta+es place thro!gh the sa#e !nderl"ing processes$Learners receive et)een inp!t fro# spea+ers in their environ#ent and the" for#associationset)een)ordsando=ectsorevents$ Theseassociationseco#estronger as i#itations* and corrective feedac+ on their errors$ Lang!agedevelop#ent is vie)ed as the for#ation of haits$/ehavio!ris# )as often lin+ed to the Contrastive 'nal"sis 9"pothesis 7C'98$ TheC'9 predicts that )here there are si#ilarities et)een the first lang!age and thetargetlang!age* thelearner)ill ac.!iretarget,lang!agestr!ct!res)itheaseF)here there are differences* the learner )ill have diffic!lt"$Learners are rel!ctant to transfer certain feat!res of their first lang!age to thesecond lang!age$ 'll this s!ggests that the infl!ence of the learner3s first lang!age#a"notsi#pl"ea#atterofthetransferofhaits* !ta#ores!tleandco#ple( process ofidentif"ing points of si#ilarit"* )eighing the evidence and evenreflecting ao!t )hether a certain feat!res see#s to elong in the str!ct!re ofthe target lang!age$The ehavio!rist acco!nt has proven to e at est an inco#plete e(planation forlang!age learning$Innatis#Dniversal Gra##arCho#s+"3s theor"oflang!age ac.!isition is ased onthe h"pothesis that innate+no)ledgeoftheprinciplesofDniversal Gra##ar7DG8 per#itsall childrentoac.!ire the lang!age of their environ#ent* d!ring a critical periodin theirdevelop#ent$ I#plications of this theor" for second lang!age learning* so#eling!ists )or+ing )ithin this theor" have arg!ed that DG offers the estperceptive fro# )hich to !nderstand second lang!age ac.!isition 7SL'8$ DG is nolonger availale to g!ide the ac.!isition of a second lang!age in learners )ho havepassed the critical period for lang!age ac.!isition$:o not all agree on ho) DG )or+s in second lang!age develop#ent$ Even if secondlang!age learners egin learning the second lang!age after the end of the criticalperiodandevenif#an"fail toachieveco#plete#aster"ac.!isition& learnersevent!all" +no) #ore ao!t the lang!age than the" co!ld reasonal" have learnedif the" had to depend entirel" on the inp!t the" are e(posed to$ The" infer fro#thisthatDG#!steavailaletosecondlang!agelearnersas)ell astofirslang!age learners$Researchers )or+ing )ithin the DG differ in their h"potheseses ao!t ho) for#alinstr!ction or error correction )ill affect the learner3s +no)ledge of the secondlang!age$ 'd!ltsecondlang!agelearnersneitherneednorenefit fro#errorcorrection and #etaling!istic infor#ation$ These change onl" the s!perficialappearance of lang!age perfor#ance and do not affect the +no)ledge of the ne)lang!age$ Other DG ling!ists* s!ggest that second lang!age learners #a" need to egiven so#e e(plicit infor#ation ao!t )hat is not gra##atical in the secondlang!age$Researchers )ho st!d" SL'fro#the DGperspective are interestedin thelang!age co#petence 7+no)ledge8 of advanced learners rather than in the si#plelang!age of earl" stages learners$ Th!s their investigations involve the =!dge#entsof gra##aticalit"* rather than oservations of act!al spea+ing$ The" hope to gaininsightinto)hatlearnersact!all"+no)ao!tthelang!age* !singatas+)hichavoids at least so#e of the #an" things )hich affect the )a" )e ordinaril" !selang!age$Recent ps"chological theoriesInfor#ation processingCognitive ps"chologists )or+ing in an infor#ation processing #odel of h!#anlearning and perfor#ance tend to see second lang!age ac.!isition as the !ilding !pof +no)ledge s"ste#s that can event!all" i called on a!to#aticall" for spea+ingand !nderstanding$ 't first* learners pa" attention to an" aspect of the lang!age)hich the" are tr"ing to !nderstand or prod!ce$ There is a li#it to the a#o!nt ofinfor#ationah!#ancanpa"attentiontoatoneti#e$ Theperfor#ance)hichevent!all" eco#e a!to#atic #a" originatefro#intentional learning$ 'n"thing)hich!ses!po!r#ental processingspaceisapossileso!rceforinfor#ation)hich can event!all" e availale a!to#aticall"$Ever"thing)eco#eto+no)ao!t thelang!age)asfirst noticedconscio!sl"7Sch#idt8$There are changes in s+ill and +no)ledge )hich are d!e to restr!ct!ring$ So#eti#ethings )hich )e +no) and !se a!to#aticall" #a" not e e(plainale in ter#s of agrad!al !ild,!p of a!to#aticall" thro!gh practice$ The" see# to e ased on theinteraction of +no)ledge )eal read" have or on the ac.!isition of ne) +no)ledge)hich so#eho) fitsintoane(isting s"ste#and ca!ses it toe transfor#ed orrestr!ct!red$Connectionis#Connectionists!nli+einnatists* seenoneedtoh"pothesi-ethee(istenceofane!rological #od!le connectionists attri!te greater i#portance to the role of theenviron#ent than to an" innate +no)ledge* arg!ing that )hat in innate is si#pl" theailit" to learn* not an" specificall" ling!istic str!ct!re$Connectionists arg!e that learners grad!all" !ild !p their +no)ledge of lang!agethro!gh e(pos!re to tho!sands of instances of the ling!istic feat!res the" learn$4hile innatists see the lang!age inp!t in the environ#ent #ainl" as a trigger toactivate innate +no)ledge* connectionists see the inp!t as the principal so!rce ofling!istic +no)ledge$ 'fter hearing lang!age feat!res over and over again* learnersdevelop stronger and stronger #ental or ne!rologicalconnections et)een theseele#ents$ The presence of one sit!ational or ling!istic ele#ent )ill the other in thelearner3s #ind$The interactionist positionSo#e interactionist theorists have arg!ed that #!ch second lang!age ac.!isitionta+es places thro!gh conversational interaction$ Co#prehensile inp!t is necessar"for lang!age ac.!isition$ 1ichael Long is #ore concerned )ith the .!estion of ho)inp!t is #ade co#prehensile$ 4hat learners need is not necessaril" si#plificationof the ling!istic for#s !t rather an opport!nit" to interact )ith other spea+ers*in )a"s )hich lead the# to adapt )hat the" are sa"ing !ntil the learner sho)s singsof!nderstanding$ Researchsho)thatnativespea+ersconsistentl"#odif"theirspeech in s!stained conversation )ith non,native spea+ers$1odified interaction necessar" for lang!age ac.!isition&%, Interactional #odification #a+es inp!t co#prehensileF0, Co#prehensile inp!t pro#otes ac.!isition$Therefore6, Interactional #odification pro#otes ac.!isition$1odified interaction #a" incl!de elaoration* slo)er speech rate gest!re* or theprovision of additional conte(t!al c!es$%, Co#prehension chec+s 2 to ens!re that the learners has !nderstood0, Clarification re.!ests6, Self,repetition or paraphraseConversational ad=!st#ents can aid co#prehension$ 1odification )hich ta+es placed!ring interaction leads to etter !nderstanding than ling!istic si#plification$'notherperspectiveontheroleofinteractioninsecondlang!ageac.!isitionisV"gots+"3s socioc!lt!ral theor"ofh!#an #ental processing$ V"gots+"3s theor"ass!#esthatall cognitivedevelop#entarisesasares!ltofsocial interactionset)een individ!als$ E(tending V"gots+"3s theor" others clai# that secondlang!age learners to higher levels of ling!istic +no)ledge )hen the" collaorate andinteract )ith spea+ers of the second lang!age )ho are #ore +no)ledge that the"are for e(a#ple* a teacher or a #ore advanced learner$S!##ar"In the end* )hat all theories of lang!age ac.!isition are #eant acco!nt for is the)or+ing of the h!#an #ind$1an"clai#sfro#ehavio!risttheor")ereasedone(peri#ents)ithani#alslearningavariet"ofresponsestolaorator"sti#!li$ Theirapplicailit"tothenat!ral learningoflang!age)asstrongl"challengedeca!seoftheinade.!ac"ehavio!rist #odels$Infor#ation processing and connectionist research often involves co#p!tersi#!lations or ver" controlled laorator"e(peri#ents$ 1an"ling!istsarg!ethatthis does not entitle connectionists to generali-e to the co#ple(ities of a nor#alh!#an lang!age learning$The innatists dra) #!ch of their evidence fro# st!dies of the co#ple(ities of theproficient spea+er3slang!age+no)ledgeandperfor#anceandfro#anal"sisoftheir o)n int!itions ao!t lang!age$ Critics arg!e that it is not eno!gh to +no) )hatthe final state of +no)ledge$ Interactionists e#phasi-e the role of the #odification of interaction inconversations$ Critics agree that there is #!ch )hich learners need to +no) )hichis not availale in the inp!t$;, >'CTORS '>>ECTING SECON: L'NG'DGE LE'RNING'll nor#al children* given a nor#al !pringing* are s!ccessf!l in the ac.!isition oftheir first lang!age$ This contrasts )ith o!r e(perience of second lang!agelearners* )hose s!ccess varies greatl"$1an" of !s elieve that learners have certain characteristics )hich lead to #ore orless s!ccessf!l lang!agelearning$ S!cheliefsare!s!all"asedonanecdotalevidence* of o!r o)n or of people )e +no)$ In addition to personalit"characteristics* otherfactorsgenerall"consideredtoerelevant tolang!agelearning are intelligence* aptit!de* #otivation and attit!des$ 'lso* the age at )hichlearning egins$Characteristics of the good lang!age learnerSo#e people have a #!ch easier ti#e of learning than others$ Rate of develop#entvaries)idel"a#ongfirstlang!agelearners$ Insecondlang!agelearning* so#est!dentsprogressrapidl"thro!ghtheinitial stagesoflearningane)lang!age)hile others str!ggle along #a+ing ver" slo) progress$ So#e learners never achievenative,li+e co##and of a second lang!age$ RESE'RC9 ON LE'RNER C9'R'CTERISTICS4hen researchers are interested in finding o!t )hether #otivation affects secondlang!age learning* the" select a gro!p of learners and give the# a .!estionnaire to#eas!re the t"pe and degree of their #otivation$The learners are then given atest to #eas!re their second lang!age proficienc"$ The test and the .!estionnaireare scored and the researcher perfor#s a correlation on the t)o #eas!res* to see)hether learners )ith high scores on the proficienc" test are also #ore li+el" tohave high scores on the #otivation .!estionnaire$ If this is the case* theresearcher concl!des that high levels of #otivation are correlated )ith s!ccess inlang!age learning$The first prole# is that is not possile to directl" oserve and #eas!re .!alitiess!chas#otivation* e(troversion* orevenintelligence$ Theseare=!stlaelsofehavio!rs and characteristics$:ifferent researchers have often !sed the sa#elaels to descrie different sets of ehavio!ral traits$'nother factor )hich #a+es it diffic!lt to reach concl!sions ao!t relationshipset)eenindivid!al learnercharacteristicsandsecondlang!agelearningisho)lang!age proficienc" is defined and #eas!red$>inall"* thereistheprole#ofinterpretingthecorrelationoft)ofactorsaseing d!e to ca!sal relationship et)een the#$ The fact that t)o things tend toocc!r together does not necessaril" #ean that one ca!sed the other$ Learners )hoare s!ccessf!l #a" indeed e highl" #otivated$Intelligence This ter# has traditionall" een !sed to refer to perfor#ance on certain +inds oftests$ These tests are often associated )ith s!ccess in school* and a lin+ et)eenintelligence and second lang!age learning has so#eti#es een reported$ Over the"ears* #an" st!dies have fo!nd that IK scores )ere a good #eans of predictingho) s!ccessf!l a learner )o!ld e$ Recent st!dies have sho)n that these #eas!res#a" e #ore strongl" related to certain +inds of second lang!age ailities than toothers$ Intelligence #a" e a strong factor )hen it co#es to learning$ It #a" pla" aless i#portant role in classroo#s )here the instr!ction foc!ses #ore onco##!nication and interaction$Itisco#ple($ Individ!alshave#an"+indsofailitiesandstrengths* notall of)hich are #eas!red " traditional IKtests$ 1an" st!dents )hose acade#icperfor#ance has een e(perienced consideral" s!ccess in second lang!agelearning$'ptit!deSo#eindivid!alshaveane(ceptional aptit!de forlang!agelearning$ Learning.!ic+l"is the disting!ishingfeat!reof aptit!de$ The#ost )idel"!sed aptit!detests are the 1odern Lang!age 'ptit!de Test 71L'T8 and the Pi#sle!r Lang!age'ptit!de/atter"7PL'/8$ /othasedonthevie)thataptit!deisco#posedofdifferent t"pes of ailities& %, the ailit" to identif" and #e#ori-e ne) so!ndsF 0,theailit"to!nderstandthef!nctionofpartic!lar)ordsinsentencesF 6,theailit" to fig!re o!t gra##atical r!les fro# lang!age sa#plesF ;, #e#or" for ne))ords$S!ccessf!l lang!age learners #a" not e strong in all of the co#ponents ofaptit!de$Teachers #a" find that +no)ing the aptit!de profile of their st!dents)ill help the# in selecting appropriate classroo# activities for partic!lar gro!ps ofst!dents$Personalit"'n!#erofpersonalit"characteristicshaveeenproposedasli+el"toaffectsecond lang!age learning* !t it has not een eas" to de#onstrate their effects ine#pirical st!dies$ 's )ith other research investigating the effects of individ!alcharacteristics on second lang!age learning* different st!dies #eas!ring a si#ilarpersonalit" trait prod!ce different res!lts$ 'n e(troverted person is )ell s!ited tolang!agelearning$ S!ccessiscorrelated)ithlearners3 scoresoncharacteristicsoftenassociated)ithe(troversions!chasassertivenessandadvent!ro!snessFothershavefo!nd#an"s!ccessf!l lang!agelearnersdonotgethighscoreson#eas!res of e(troversion$ 'nother aspect st!died is inhiition )hich disco!rages ris+, ta+ing$ It3s a prole#of adolescents* )ho are #ore self,conscio!s than "o!nger learners$ Inhiition is anegative force for second lang!age pron!nciation perfor#ance$Several other personalit" characteristics s!ch as self,estee#* e#path"*do#inance* tal+ativeness* andresponsivenesshavealsoeenst!died$ The#a=ordiffic!lt" in investigating personalit" characteristics is that of identification and#eas!re#ent$1an"researcherselievethatpersonalit")ill esho)ntohaveani#portantinfl!ence on s!ccess in lang!age learning$Proal" not personalit" alone* !t the)a" it co#ines )ith other factors* that contri!tes to second lang!age learning$1OTIV'TION 'N: 'TTITD:ESThere has een a great deal of research on the role of attit!des and #otivation insecond lang!age learning$ Positive attit!des and #otivation are related to s!ccessinsecondlang!agelearning$ The.!estion is* arelearners#orehighl"#otivatedeca!se the are s!ccessf!l* or the" are s!ccessf!l eca!se the" are highl"#otivatedL1otivation can e defined in ter#s of t)o factors& learners3 co##!nicative needsand their attit!des to)ards the second lang!age co##!nit"$If learners need tospea+ the second lang!age in a )ide range of social sit!ations the" )ill perceive theco##!nicative val!e of the second lang!age and therefore e #otivated to ac.!ireproficienc" in it$ The ter#s integrative #otivation refer to lang!age learning forpersonal gro)th and c!lt!ral enrich#ent* and instr!#ental #otivation for lang!agelearning for #ore i##ediate or practicalgoals$ :epending on the learner3s attit!des* learning a second lang!age can e a so!rce ofenrich#entoraso!rceofresent#ent$ Ifthereasonforlearningthesecondlang!ageis e(ternal press!re* internal #otivation#a"e#ini#al andgeneralattit!des to)ards learning #a" e negative$One factor )hich affects #otivation is the sociald"na#ic or po)er relationshipet)een the lang!ages$ That is* #e#ers of a #inorit" gro!p learning the lang!ageof a #a=orit" gro!p have different attit!des and #otivation fro# #a=orit" gro!p#e#ers learning a #inorit" lang!age$1otivation in the classroo# settingIn a teacher3s #ind* #otivated st!dents are those )ho participate activel" in class*e(pressinterestandst!d"agreatdeal$ If)ecan#a+eo!rclassroo#places)here st!dents en=o" co#ing eca!se the content is interesting* )here thelearning goals are challenging "et #anageale* )here the at#osphere is s!pportiveand non, threatening* )e can #a+e a positive contri!tion to st!dents3#otivationto learn$ 'lso&,#otivating st!dents into the lesson,var"ing the activities* tas+s and #aterials, !sing co,operative rather than co#petitive goalsLearner preferencesLearnershaveclearpreferencesforho)the"goao!t learningne)#aterial7learning st"le8$ People cannot learn so#ething !ntil the" have seen it$ S!chlearners)o!ldfall intothegro!pcalledvis!al learners$ Otherpeople* #a"ecalled a!ral learners* need onl" to hear so#ething once or t)ice efore the" +no)it$ Others are +inaesthetic learners* need to add a ph"sical action to the learningprocess$ Incontrastconsideral"researchhasfoc!sedonacognitivelearningst"le distinction et)een field independent and field dependent learners$ 'nindivid!al tends to separate details fro# the general ac+gro!nd or to see thingholisticall"$ 'nother categor" is ased on the individ!al3s te#pera#ent orpersonalit"$4hen learners e(press a preference for seeing so#ething )ritten or for#e#ori-ing #aterial* )e sho!ld not ass!#e that the )a"s of )or+ing are )rong$ 4esho!ld enco!rage the# to !se all #eans availale$Learners eliefs'll thelearners* havestrongeliefsandopinionsao!t ho)theirinstr!ctionsho!ld e delivered$ Ds!all" ased on previo!s learning e(periences and theass!#ption that a partic!lar t"pe o instr!ction is the est )a" for the# to learn$Learners eliefs can e strong #ediating factors in the e(perience in theclassroo#$Learners3 preferences for learning* )ill infl!ence the +ind of strategies the" !se inorder to learn ne) #aterial$'ge of ac.!isition' learner characteristic& age$ It3s easier to define and #eas!re than personalit"*aptit!de and #otivation$Children fro#i##igrant fa#ilies event!all" spea+ the lang!age of their ne)co##!nit" )ith native,li+e fl!enc"$ 1an" ad!lts second lang!age learners eco#ecapaleofco##!nicatingver"s!ccessf!ll"inthelang!age!t* differenceofaccent* )ord choice or gra##atical feat!res disting!ish the# fro# native spea+ersand second lang!age spea+ers$In first lang!age ac.!isition* there is a critical period for second lang!ageac.!isition$ There is a ti#e in h!#an develop#ent )hen the rain is predisposed tos!cceed in lang!age learning$ Changes in the rain affect the nat!re of lang!ageac.!isition$ 'ccording to this vie)* lang!age learning )hich occ!rs after the end ofa critical period #a" not e ased on the innate iological str!ct!res to contri!tetofirst lang!ageac.!isitionorsecondlangac.!isitioninearl"childhood$ Thecritical period ends so#e)here aro!nd p!ert"* so#e even earlier$@o!nger learners 7Critical period 9"pothesis8 have #ore ti#e to devote to learninga lang!age$ The" have #ore opport!nities to hear and !se the lang!age inenviron#ents)herethe"donot e(periencepress!retospea+fl!entl"$ Olderlearners are in sit!ations )hich de#and #ore co#ple( lang!age$ 'd!lts are oftene#arrassed )ith their lac+ of #aster" of the lang!age and #!st develop a senseof inade.!ac" after e(periences of fr!stration in tr"ing to sa" e(actl" )hat the"#ean$So#est!diesof olderand"o!ngerlearnershavesho)nthatolderlearnersare#ore efficient than "o!nger st!dents$ In ed!cational research* learners )ho eganlearning a second lang!age at the pri#ar" school level did not fare etter in thelong r!n than those )ho egan in earl" adolescence$ Critical Period 9"pothesis& 1ore than =!st accentL1ost st!dies have foc!sed on learnersJ phonological 7pron!nciation8 achieve#ent$Older learners have a noticeale foreign accent$Is s"nta( dependent on age ofac.!isition as phonological develop#entL 4hat ao!t #orpholog"L One st!d" that atte#pted to ans)er these .!estions )as done " 1ar+Pat+o)s+i$1aster" of the spo+en lang!age 1ar+ Pat+o)s+i st!died the effect of the age on the ac.!isition of feat!res of asecondlang!ageotherthanaccent$ 9eh"pothesi-edthat* evenifaccent)ereignored* onl" those )ho had eg!n learning their second lang!age efore the age of%< co!ld ever achieve f!ll* native,li+e #aster" of that lang!age$Pat+o)s+iJs first .!estion$ 4ill there e a difference et)een learners )ho eganto learn English efore p!ert" and those )ho egan learning English laterL It4as ans)ered )ith a "es$ 'ge )as closel" related to the other factors that it )asnot reall"possiletoseparatethe#co#pletel"$ Person )ho hadlivedin theco!ntr" for %< "ears #ight spea+ etter than one )ho had een there for onl" %E"ears$ 9o)ever* a person )ho had arrived in the Dnited States at the age of %B andhad lived there for 0E "ears did not score significantl" etter than so#eone hadarrived at the age of %B !t onl" lived there for %E "ears$Th!s Pat+o)s+i fo!nd that age of ac.!isition in a ver" i#portant factor in settingli#its on the develop#ent of native,li+e #aster" of second lang!age and that thisli#itation does not appl" onl" to accent$Native,li+e #aster" of the spo+en lang!age is diffic!lt to attain " older learners$Even the ailit" appears to e affected " the age factor$Int!ition of gra##aticalit"Ma.!eline Mohnson and Elissa Ne)port cond!cted a st!d" of ;? Chinese and Goreanspea+ers )ho had eg!n to learn English at different ages$The" fo!nd that there )as a strong relationship et)een an earl" start to lang!agelearning and etter perfor#ance in the second lang!age$ Those )ho egan eforethe age of %eeling oneself to e a pa)n in the hands of others arogates choices and disco!rages an" sense of personal responsiilit" for one3s actions$The discover" that so#eone else )ants #e to act in a )a" so #!ch tat the" are prepared to re)ard #e for #" actions* the" #" feelings of personal responsiilit" and freedo# of choice #a" e di#inished$ Loc!s of controlIt involves their perception of )hether the" are s!se.!entl" in control of their actions$ The e(tent to )hich learners are in control of their learning )ill have an effect !pon their #otivation to e contin!all" involved in learning the lang!age$ In contrast* learned helplessness* refers to learners that feel the" lac+ control over )hat happens$Effectiveness #otivationIndivid!als possess an inner drive to)ards #aster" )hich differs fro# the need to achieve$ 1aster" involves s!cceeding in a tas+ for its o)n sa+e )hile achieving entails s!cceeding in order to e etter than other people$Self,efficac" for learning refers to st!dents eliefs ao!t their capailities to appl" effectivel" the +no)ledge and s+ills the" alread" possess and there" learn ne) cognitive s+ills$ This is one )a" of e(plaining the co##on distinction et)een capailit" and perfor#ance$ I #a" have the s+ills !t !nless I elieve that I a# capale of doing so* I a# !nli+el" to de#onstrate those s+ills in that conte(t$?$%%$0 1otivational st"leIn see+ing to #a+e sense of different patterns of responses to perceived s!ccess and fail!re so#e theorist developed the notion of #otivational st"le$ The concept of Learned helplessness is !sef!l to descrie people )ho see fail!re as essentiall" d!e to a lac+ of ailit" and )ho feel the" have no control over their actions$ The concept of #aster" oriented e(plains fail!re in ter#s of lac+ of effort and see+ cl!es in their #ista+es for )a"s of i#proving their s!se.!ent perfor#ance$Self,)orth concern& people )ith high self,)orth concern )ill see+ sit!ations )ehre the" enhance their feelings and avoid sit!ations in )hich the" #a" fail or )here a great deal of effort is involved$The i#plication for teachers is that their learners3 interpretations of ho) their parents* peers and teachers perceive the# e(erts a critical infl!ence on their #otivational st"le this their #otivation to learn a lang!age$?$%0 Setting and achieving goalsPerfor#ance Vs #aster" goalsPerfor#ance& individ!al ai# to loo+ s#art1aster"& ai# to eco#e s#arterPeople3s choices for goals reflect oth their eliefs ao!t intelligence and ailit" and their t"pical ehavio!r patterns in achieve#ent sit!ations$ The ones )ho choose perfor#ance vie) intelligence as so#ething fi(ed and !nchangeale$ If their confidence is lo) the" )on3t i#prove their perfor#ance* if it is high the" )ill acco!nt for s!ccess in ter#s of fi(ed intelligence$ Those )ho p!rs!e learning goals 7#aster"8 )ill elieve that intelligence or ailit" is #alleale and that effort is )orth)hile$ If the goal is set " so#eone else* teachers )ill need to ens!re that learners are read"* )illing and ale to achieve these goals in a foc!sed and self,directed )a"$The ter# effort,avoidance #otivation descries the ehavio!r of people )ho )ere #otivated not to )or+ to achieve goals set " others$The teacher sho!ld foc!s on redirecting the energ" p!t into effort,avoidance in creative rather than controlling )a"s$ The att!ne#ent strateg" involves the teacher negotiating )ith the learner all aspects of the )or+$ The teacher is a #ediator$?$%6 The involve#ent of significant othersT)o #ain factors can e seen as contri!ting to learners3 #otivation to participate in activities introd!ced " other people 7teachers8&%$ Personalit" or nat!re of the person introd!cing the activit"$0$ the )a" in )hich the person presents the activit" and )or+s )ith the learnerd!ring the co#pletion of that activit"$Teachers #!st& #a+e their intentions clear* invest tas+s )ith personal significance and e(plain clearl" ho) to perfor# the activit"$?$%6$% >eedac+ /ehavio!rists see it as a #otivating infl!ence$ It can e given " #eans of a praise* co##ent or silence$ Reinforce#ent& so#ething that contri!tes to the rec!rrence of ehavio!r$ It can e either positive or negative$ >eedac+ is li+el" to increase #otivation to)ards certain tas+s$ It provides infor#ation that enales learners to identif" specific aspects of their perfor#ance* it sho!ld e helpf!l and #otivating$ Tho!gh if it fails* it can have the opposite effects$ ' constr!ctivist e(planation in ter#s of #eaning that re)ards conve" to learners$ Praise or re)ard )ill conve" #essages ao!t the +inds of ehavio!rs e(pected$ The f!t!re ehavio!r of learners )ill depend !pon ho) the" perceive the o!tco#es to e val!ed " significant others$Psycho!ogy .or Lang(age Teachers"' 8i!!ia4s% 2arion 9 #(r-en% +obert (1::1);An Intro-(ction to E-(cationa! Psycho!ogy; #eha3io(ris4 an- Cogniti3ePsycho!ogyEDUCATIONAL P6INITION O> E:DC'TION'L PS@C9OLOG@& Theapplicationofps"cholog"toed!cation"foc!singonthedevelop#ent*eval!ation and application of theories and principles of learning and instr!ctionthat can enhance lifelong learning$7Gaplan* %CCE8 9o)ever* it lac+s a recognition that there is a difference et)een learning anded!cation Conse.!ence& #an" learning activities are not necessaril" ed!cative$ 1an"lang!agetas+shavelittlepersonal interesttothelearnersandhaveli#iteded!cational significance e"ond the tas+ itself$'PPRO'C9ES TO E:$ PS@C9OLOG@& Late %Cth c$ the discipline of ps"cholog" )as deen to estalish itself as a scienceon a par )ith the nat!ral sciences$NO scientific #ethod& a #eans of gatheringdataao!th!#anehavio!r$ NOconflictet)eenthose)hosa)theareaofst!d" as )hat )ent on in the h!#an ps"che and those )ho sa)it as aconcentration !pon oservale ehavio!r$%$ Positivistschool& ps"chologistsso!ghttofindtheprinciplesofh!#anlearning " investigating the ehavio!r of ani#als lo)er do)n theiological hierarch" of the ani#al +ingdo#* !nder rigoro!sl" definedconditions$NO logical positivis#& +no)ledgeandfactse(ist)ithinthereal )orldandcanediscovered"setting!pe(peri#entsin)hichconditions are caref!ll" controlled and )here h"potheses are set !p andtested$NO this vie) co!ld accept onl" e#pirical data as evidence that apheno#enon )as occ!rring* and re=ected an"thing )hich co!ld not e seenor #eas!redas!nscientific$ Eg$ ho)ratslearnedtheir)a"thro!gh#a-es to otain food$ /!t since the tho!ghts and feelings of h!#ans )ereconsideredtoeinaccessiletoproperscientificinvestigation)ithinthis paradig#* the" )ere not investigated$ /ehavio!ris#& hasitsroots)ithinpositivis#andhasinfl!enceonlang!age teaching$ It arose o!t of the ideas of earl" learning theorists)ho atte#ptedto e(plain all learning in ter#s of so#e for#ofconditioning eg$ Pavlov de#onstrated)ith dogs and other ani#als thata response 7salivation8 generated " one sti#!l!s7food8 co!ld eprod!ced " introd!cing a second sti#!l!s7a ell8 at the sa#e ti#e$NOS,R7Sti#!l!s,Response8 theor" orclassical conditioning$9o)ever*thisprovedtoeofli#itedval!einacco!ntingfortheenor#o!srange of h!#anactions$ 1ean)hile* in the DS' a different ro!t )asta+en " ehavio!rists* )ho egan to foc!s on the nat!re and shapingofresponsesintheS,Rchain* andtheconditions!nder)hichs,rrelationships )ere for#ed$ S+inner& fo!nderof#odernehavio!ris#$ Constr!ctedas"ste#ofprinciples to acco!nt for h!#an ehavio!r in strictl" oservaleter#s$Learning )as the res!lt of environ#ental rather than geneticfactors$ Introd!ced the notions of operants 7the range of ehavio!rsthat organis#s perfor#ed or )ere capale of perfor#ing8 andreinforce#ent$/ehavio!risttheor"th!sca#etoe(plainlearninginter#s of operant conditioning& an individ!al responds to a sti#!l!s "ehaving in a partic!lar )a"$ In this )a" an" range of ehavio!rs co!lde grad!all" increased " reinforcing the ehavio!r re.!ired$ Int!rning his attention to ed!cation* S+inner arg!ed that this co!ld ei#proved " the adoption of fo!r proced!res& teachers sho!ld #a+eclear )hat is to e ta!ghtF tas+s sho!ld e ro+en do)n intose.!ential stepsF sts sho!ld e enco!raged to )or+ at their o)n pace"#eansofindivid!alisedlearningprogra##esF learningsho!ldeprogra##ed "incorporatingtheaoveproced!resandprovidingi##ediate positive reinforce#ent$ /ehavio!rist vie)s )ere a po)erf!linfl!ence on the develop#ent of the a!dioling!al approach to lang!ageteaching$ 4hen it is applied to lang learning* lang is seen as aehavio!r to e ta!ght$ Sts are given lang tas+s in se.!ential steps$ 's#all part of the foreign lang is presented as sti#!l!s* to )hich thelearnerresponds* "repetitionors!stit!tion$ Thisisfollo)ed"reinforce#ent " the teacher$ Learning a lang is seen as ac.!iring aset ofappropiate #echanicalhaits 7patterndrills*#e#orisation ofdialog!es8* and errors are fro)ned !pon as reinforcing ad haitsFe(planation of r!les is generall" given )hen the lang ite# has een )ellpractised$ '!dioling!alis# does have li#itations& passive role oflearnersF there is little concern for )hat goes on inside the learners3headsF a!dioling!al drills can e carried o!t )ith little attention to the#eaning that the lang conve"sF there is no negotiation of #eaningsF itdoes not allo) for learning fro# #ista+es$ Nevertheless* str!ct!ral ora!dioling!al approach has do#inated lang teaching aro!nd the )orld$NOreasons& sincein#an"co!ntriesteachersarenotprovided)ithaprofessional training* it3s easier for the#to !se the steps ofpresentation* practice* repetition and drills and to follo) theirco!rseoo+F teach )ho lac+ confidence tend to e less frightenedF !tthe #a"or reason is that it is !nderpinned " a coherent ps"chologicalperspective 7ehavio!ris#8*)hereas #ore co##!nicative approacheshave lac+ed a coherent theor" of learning$'nother positive point isthepart pla"ed"parents5teachinsettingappropriatelearningconditions and ens!ring partic!lar +inds of ehavio!ral conse.!ences$/ehavio!ris#3s negative point is that it is onl" concerned )ithoservale ehavio!r$0$ Cognitiveps"cholog"& it isfoc!sedinthe#ental processes that areinvolved in learning$ The learner is an active participant and !ses #entalstrategies$ 9o)ever* the )a"s in )hich h!#an tho!ght has eeninvestigatedhavethe#selvesvariedconsideral"$ 'tonee(tre#eareinfor#ation theorists )ho have dra)n the analog" of the rain as a highl"co#ple( co#p!ter and )ho see+ to e(plain its )or+ing in ter#s of r!lesand #odels of ho) different aspects of learning ta+e place$ 't the othere(tre#e is theconstr!ctivist#ove#ent7Mean Piaget* George Gell"8*concerned )ith )a"s in )hich individ!als co#e to #a+e their o)n sense ofthe)orld$ @etanotheraspectofcognitiveps"cholog"istherichandvariedliterat!reonh!#anintelligence$ So#etheoriessee+toe(plain)hat is intelligence and others to #eas!re it " #ethods as IK testing$These different approaches to cognition are infor#ation processing andconstr!ctivis#$ Infor#ationprocessing& itisanapproachtolearningconcerned)ith the )a" in )hich people ta+e in infor#ation* process it and act!pon it$ 'ttention* perception and #e#or" eco#e the foc!s of the)or+$ These theorists constr!ct #odels to tr" to acco!nt for the)a"in)hichtheh!#an#ind)or+s$ The"clai#toealetopredictthe+indof#ental processesthat)ill enecessar"foreffective learning to ta+e place and to identif" precisel" ho) and)here an" #alf!nctioning is occ!rring )hen a person is displa"inglearningdiffic!lties$'ttention&so#elearnershaveconsideral"diffic!lt" in pa"ing attention to their )or+ and that invarial" this)ill have a negative effect on their learning$ 4h" do ppl differ so#!ch in this respect and )hat can the teach doL One vie) s!ggeststhat attentionsho!ldeseenasaprocessoffilteringo!t anover)hel#ing range of inco#ing sti#!li and selecting o!t onl" thosesti#!li )hich are i#portant for f!rther processing$ 'nother vie)concept!alises att$ as a cognitive reso!rce )hich can e dra)n !ponas a #eans of concentrating o!t #ental efforts$ /!t as oneeco#es #ore s+ilf!l as in the case of reading* there is less needto call !pon one3s f!ll att$1e#or"& 't+inson and Shiffrin3s #odeldescries #e#or" in ter#s of a sensor" register )here sti#!li areinitiall" recorded for a rief a#o!nt of ti#e efore eing passedinto short,ter# #e#or"* lasting no longer than 6E seconds$/eca!se of its s#all capacit" 7ao!t A ite#s at an" one ti#e8* it isnecessar"tofind)a"sofrea+ingdo)nco#ple(#aterial intorelated ch!n+s efore consigning these to the long,ter# #e#or"store$ One )a" to do this is " rehearsal* in the for# of repetitionor association of #eaning to )hat is to e re#e#ered$ Practicali#plications& #e#or" is ver" i#portant in learning a lang!age$ Thereis nothing to e gained fro#overloading learners3 short,ter##e#or" )itho!t so#e for# of rehearsal 7#ne#onic strategies andinvolving#orethanoneofthesensesF lin+)ord#ethod& lin+ing)ords in oth the first and second lang!age to constr!ct a pict!rein the #indF advanced organisers& topical introd!ction to a lessonthatorientateslearnerstothes!=ect#atterandrelatesne)learning to )hat the learners alread" +no)8$Intelligence andintelligence testing& earl" vie)s arose o!t of the )or+ of pioneersof the e!genics #ove#ent )ho )ere co##itted to the i#prove#entof the h!#an race " genetic engineeringF ta+en !p "ps"cho#etricians)hoso!ght)a"sto#eas!retheso,calledg7general intelligence8 factorandgaveriseto#isg!idednotionsthat so#e races )ere intellect!all" s!perior to others 7IK tests*Carroll andSapon3s1odernLang'ptit!deTest71L'T88$ Thesetests )ere ased on the pre#ise that ppl possess a fi(ed a#o!ntof ailit" at lang learning* and that this ailit" can e #eas!red$ 'recent develop#ent ofthis traditional vie) ste#s fro# the )or+ofthe9arvardps"chologistGardner$ 9earg!esthatinsteadofvie)ingintelligenceasa!nitar"fac!lt"* )esho!ldconsiderthepossiilit" of different+inds ofintelligences 7A*oneof)hich isling!istic intelligence8$ Vernon provided a helpf!l !t !n=!stl"neglected* perspective on the iss!e of )hether and ho) intel$ co!lde #eas!red$ Intel '& intel )ith )hich )e are orn$ 9o)ever* c )eare all affected "o!r environ#ents* this genetic endo)#ent cannever e #eas!red$Intel /& intel )e displa" in all aspects of o!rever"da" lives )hich is contin!all" changing and ver" #!ch conte(t,o!nd$ Intel C& represents )hat is #eas!red " IK tests$ 9o)ever*the +ind of intelligence that these tests represent has not een asgood as a central factor inlearning and can even act as a arrierto teachers3 !nderstanding of the learning process$ Stengergproposedatriarchictheor"ofintel )hichcontainsthree#a=orsets of co#ponents$1etaco#ponents& cognitive s+ills e#plo"ed inplanninganddecision#a+ingNOrecognitionthataprole#e(ists*a)areness of vario!s possile strategies to solve it$ Perfor#ance&asic operations involved in act!all" solving an" giventas+NOinferential thin+ing* dra)ing co#parisons$ Gno)ledgeac.!isition& processes !sed in ac.!iring ne) +no)ledgeNO selectingrelevantinfo* integratingitto)hatisalread"+no)n$ Sincethe#aine#phasisinthisapproachisplaced!pontheconceptionofintel ehavio!r as the appropriate !se of cognitive s+ills andstrategies )ithin specific conte(ts* it frees !s fro# conceiving itas so#ething that is static$ It also enales !s to see that ppl caneco#e #ore intelligent$ Constr!ctivis#& altho!gh info processing approaches can e helpf!l*the" place little or not e#phasis !pon the )a"s in )hich individ!alssee+toringasenseofpersonal #eaningtotheir)orlds$ To!nderstand this +ind of cognitive approach )e need to loo+ to)ardsthe constr!ctivist #ove#ent$Piaget&the #ain !nderl"ingass!#ption of constr!ctivis# is that individ!als are activel"involvedrightfro#irthinconstr!ctingpersonal #eaningfro#theire(periences$ Thelearnerisro!ght intocentral foc!sinlearning theor"$UNIT 3Teaching Eng!ish in the Pri4ary C!assroo4" 6(san &a!!i$e!!1) 8or=ing $ith yo(ng !ang(age !earnersChildren co#e to lang!age classroo# )ith a )ell,estalished set of instincts* s+illsand characteristics )hich )ill help the# to learn another lang!age$ >or e(a#ple* children& 'realread" ver" good at interpreting #eaning )itho!tnecessaril"!nderstandingthe individ!al )ords* 'lread" have great s+ill in !sing li#ited lang!age creativel"* >re.!entl" learn indirectl" rather than directl"* Ta+e great pleas!re in finding and creating f!n* 9ave a read" i#agination* Ta+e great delight in tal+ing$%$% Children3s ailit" to grasp #eaningChildren are ale to !nderstand )hat is eing said to the# efore the" !nderstand theindivid!al )ords$ Intonation* gest!re* facial e(pressions* actions and circ!#stances all helpto !nderstand the lang!age$ In later life* )e all #aintain this first so!rce of !nderstandingand it is a f!nda#ental part of h!#an co##!nication$ 4hen children enco!nter a ne) lang!age at school* the" can call on the sa#e s+ill tohelp the# interpret the ne) so!nds* ne) )ords and ne) str!ct!res$ 4e #!st s!pport anddevelopthiss+ill andatthesa#eti#e* )e#!stnottr"to!nder#inethechildren3s)illingness to !se the s+ill$ %$0 Children3s creative !se of li#ited lang!age reso!rcesIntheearl"agesoftheir#othertong!edevelop#ent* childrenarecreative)ithgra##atical for#s and )ith concepts$ Children also create )ords " analog"* or the" eveninvent co#pletel" ne) )ords )hich then co#e into the fa#il" voca!lar"$Thispheno#enonisf!nda#ental tolang!agedevelop#ent$ 4esititinall childrenac.!iring their #other tong!e$ 4e also +no) it in o!rselves as ad!lts )hen )e are !singanother lang!age$ In the process* )e #a" prod!ce te#poraril" ine(act and so#eti#es ineptlang!age* !t )e !s!all" #anage to co##!nicate$ In doing so )e are act!all" !ilding !p o!rgrasp of the lang!age eca!se )e are activel" reco#ining and constr!cting it foro!rselves$In order to #a+e the #ost of the creative lang!age s+ill the children ring )ith the#*so )e have to provide the# )ith occasions )hen&o The !rge to co##!nicate #a+es the# find so#e )a" of e(pressing the#selves*o The lang!age de#anded " the activit" is !npredictale and isn3t =!st as+ing thechildren to repeat set phrases* !t is arranging the# to constr!ct lang!age activel"for the#selves$ That is )h" ga#es are so i#portant$ The f!n ele#ent creates a desire to co##!nicateand create !npredictailit"$ Infact* ifchildrenarei#patienttoco##!nicatethe"proal")ill #a+e#orenotfe)er #ista+es$%$6 ChildrenEs capacit" for indirect learningLang!age activities )hich involve children in g!essing )hat phrase or )ord so#eone hastho!ght of are good e(a#ples of indirect learning$ Children are not tr"ing to learn phrases&the" are concentrating on tr"ing to g!ess right$ G!essing is act!all" a ver" po)erf!l )a" oflearning phrases and str!ct!res* !t it is indirect eca!se the #ind is engaged )ith thetas+ and is not foc!sing on the lang!age$ The process relates to the )a" )e develop o!r#other tong!e$ So )e ac.!ire the lang!age thro!gh conscio!s e(pos!re and !se$Conscio!s direct learning see#s to enco!rage )or+ed,o!t acc!rac"$ Dnconscio!sindirect learning* or ac.!isition* enco!rages spontaneo!s and therefore #ore fl!ent !se$ 's)e )ant oth acc!rac" and fl!enc" to develop* )e have to provide scope to oth s"ste#sto operate in classroo#$ The children )ho li+e to get on )ith so#ething no #atter ho) itco#es o!t )ill need enco!rage#ent to )or+ at conscio!s acc!rac"* and others )ho are +eento e precise )ill need enco!rage#ent to ris+ getting things )rong so#eti#es in order toco##!nicate$ Itisagoodideatoset!preal tas+sinthelang!ageclassroo#s$ >ore(a#ple* ga#esprovideanopport!nit"forthereal !singandprocessingoflang!age)hilethe#indisfoc!sed on the Ptas+3 of pla"ing the ga#e$%$; Children3s instinct for pla" and f!nNo#atterho))ell )ee(plainanactivit"thereisoftenso#eoneintheclass)hoprod!ces a version of their o)n$ So#eti#es it is etter than the teacher3s original idea$9ere* as in the g!essing activities* their personalities e#erge )oven into the lang!age !seand the" start to thin+ for the#selvesThro!gh their sense of f!n and pla"* children are living the lang!age for real$ 4e cansee again )h" ga#es have s!ch a central role to pla"$%$< The role of i#aginationChildrentesto!ttheirversionsofthe)orldthro!ghfantas"andconfir#ho)the)orld act!all" is thro!gh i#agination$ In the lang!age classroo# this capacit" for fantas"and i#agination has a ver" constr!ctive part to pla"$ If )e accept the role of the i#agination in children3s lives )e can see that it providesanother ver" po)erf!l sti#!l!s for real lang!age !se$ 4e )ant to sti#!late the children3screative i#agination so that the" )ant to !se the lang!age to share their ideas$%$? The instinct for interaction and tal+Of all the instincts and attri!tes that children ring to the classroo# this is proal"the #ost i#portant for the lang!age teacher$ It is one of the #ost po)erf!l #otivatorsfor !sing the lang!age$ Children can learn ao!t the lang!age* !t the onl" )a" to learn to!se it is to !se it$ So o!r =o is to #a+e s!re that the desire to tal+ is )or+ing for learningnot against learning$ 3) #eing rea!isticLang!ageclassroo#sarepotentiall"nois"andde#andingplaces$ 4eneedtoerealistic in o!r e(pectations of o!rselves and the learners$ On the contrar"* eing realisticsho!ld #ean ta+ing realities into acco!nt in s!ch a )a" that good things can still happen$ 6$% Gno)ing )hich activities Pstir3 a class and )hich Psettle3 the#In a positive sense* Pstir3 #eans that the activities )a+e the# !p* sti#!late the#$ Ina negative sense* it #a" e that the activities over,e(cite the# or allo) the# to eco#e!nconstr!ctivel" restless$ 1ean)hile* there are other activities that see#to settlechildren$ To p!t it positivel"* that #eans the" )ill cal# a class do)n$ The negative side ofthis is to sa" that so#e activities )ill ore the class into inertia$ It is !sef!l to #a+e "o!r o)n list fro# e(perience of "o!r partic!lar class&Us(a!!y stirs Us(a!!y sett!eOral )or+ Cop"ingCo#petitions Colo!ringLotto Listening7ifthe"haveso#ethingto do8:oing pla"s teacher andonest!dent at a ti#etests6$0Gno)ing)hichactivities engagechildren3s #inds and)hich+eepthe#ph"sicall"occ!pied't the ris+ again of oversi#plif"ing for the sa+e of clarit"* )e can identif" 0 #aint"pes of involve#ent )hich co!ld e descried as& 1ental engage#ent* 'ct!al occ!pation$If the teacher has five pro#pt cards sho)ing )ell,+no)n places 7Eg& par+s*s!per#ar+et* etc$8* children are alread" fa#iliar )ith the )ords and the" are no) ale toprod!ce the)ords " the#selves$ This activit" #a+es the#thin+* it engages theire#otions* it is f!n and the" are eager to choose right$ In this for# then* the activit" is#entall" engaging in several )a"s$ That is )h" children respond to it so )ell and )h" si#ilaractivities are ver" effective and pop!lar$ This +ind of #ental and e#otional engage#ent contrasts )ith act!al occ!pation'gain it helps to #a+e a list&2enta!!y engaging Act(a!!y occ(yingGa#es Reading alo!dP!--les 4ritingCo#petitions :ra)ing I#agining RepetitionTal+ing ao!tthe#selvesThe teacher can do 0 things& Choose a st"le of )or+ that in ter#s of its stir5settle potential s!its a partic!larclass or occasion* Increasechildren3s involve#ent "adaptingactivities sothat the"offer oth#ental engage#ent and act!al occ!pation$6$6 Choosing the st"le to s!it the #oodThere are occasions )hen children start the English class !nsettled$ It isinstinctivetocal#childrendo)ninso#e)a"$ 9o)ever* recentlang!ageteachinghastended to follo) patterns of )or+ )hich do not help to cal# children !t instead stir the#$/!tiftheclassisgettingsill")eneedto#a+es!re)echangetoso#ethingsettling$There )ill e other occasions )hen "o! )ill )ant to achieve the reverse and )a+ethe class !p a little at the eginning of the lesson or part )a" thro!gh )hen interest isflagging$ 'gain "o! can choose an activit" )hich enco!rages that$' teacher also can i#prove the .!alit" of classroo# interaction on the asis of theinsights afforded " the stir5settle factor and the involve#ent factor$ @o! can loo+ for)a"stoco#ine#ental engage#entand#ental occ!pation$ Thisishelpf!l )ithlargeclasses$ There are 6 things to re#e#er& Geep the lesson si#ple Re!se #aterials Re!se ideas6$; Geeping the lesson si#pleThere are 6 things to note&%$ 4e )on3t help children to develop their capacit" to concentrate if )e =!#p fro#one topic to the ne(t*0$ There are )a"s to var"ing the oral )or+ so that it is #a+ing different de#ands onthe children and therefore feels different even )hen the topic re#ains the sa#e*6$ Even if a gro!p of children cannot )rite English or if "o!r s"lla!s s!ggests the"sho!ld not )rite English in the earl" stages* there are +inds of pencil and paper)or+ the" can do$$So* variation does not #ean )e have to +eep changing the topic$ Instead* )e can +eepto the sa#e topic and #aterials and change the )or+ )e do$ 'nd )e can also +eep an e"e onthe stir5settle and involve#ent factors$The pace of the lesson is also #anaged so as to provide a shift fro# settling activit" tostirring and ac+ to settling$ In this )a"* the teacher can .!ietl" +eep ever"thing !ndercontrol )itho!t that control having to e e(plicit$ 6$< Re!sing #aterials4e have to loo+ for different )a"s in )hich )e can !se one set of #aterials andth!s red!ce o!r preparation load$ /!t )e can also red!ce o!r thin+ing preparation$ It ispossile to do this " identif"ing a core of activit" t"pes )hich )e can !se and re!se inorder to teach different lang!age contents$6$? Re!sing a core of ideasTheseactivitiesaresi#pleinprincipleandsothe")ill transfertoall +indsoftopics and sit!ations$ Thro!gh !sing these activities* "o! )ill get to +no) )hich of the#are good as stirrers and )hich act as settlers$ @o! )ill develop )a"s of adapting the# toact!al as )ell as #ental involve#ent$UNIT 3Teaching Eng!ish to Chi!-ren" 6cott 9 ive to seven "ears old4hat five to seven "ear olds can do at their o)n level& The" can tal+ ao!t )hat the" are doing 'o!t )hat the" have done or heard Plan activities 'rg!e Dse logical reasoning Dse i#aginations Dse a )ide range of intonation patterns Dnderstand direct h!#an interactionOther characteristics of the "o!ng lang!age learner The" +no) that the )orld is governed " r!les The" !nderstand sit!ations #ore .!ic+l" than lang!age Dse lang!age s+ills long efore the" are a)are of the# The ph"sical )orld is do#inant at all ti#es The" are ver" logical* )hat "o! sa" first happens first Short attention and concentration span :iffic!lt" in +no)ing fact and fiction Rel!ctant to share$ Self,centered !p to the age of si(* so#eti#es p!pils don3t )ant to)or+ together eca!se the" don3t see the point 'd!lt )orldandchild)orldarenot thesa#e$ 'd!lts !s!all" findo!t " as+ing.!estions* !t children don3t al)a"s as+ The )ill seldo# ad#it that the" don3t +no) so#ething @o!ng children cannot decide for the#selves )hat to learn Love to pla"* learn est )hen the" are en=o"ing the#selves$ /!t the" also ta+ethe#selves serio!sl" and li+e to thin+ that )hat the" are doing is real )or+ Enth!siastic and positive ao!t learningEight to ten "ears oldGeneral characteristics Relativel" #at!re /asic concepts are for#ed* decided vie)s of the )orld Tell the difference et)een fact and fiction 's+ .!estions all the ti#e Rel" on the spo+en )orld as the ph"sical 'le to #a+e decisions :efinite vie)s ao!t the" li+e and don3t li+e :eveloped sense of fairness 4or+ )ith othersLang!age develop#ent /asic ele#ents in place$ Co#petent !sers of the #other tong!eo Dnderstand astractso Dnderstand s"#ols o Generalise and s"ste#ati-e Si#ilaritieset)eenlearningone3s#othertong!eandlearningaforeignlang!age$:epend on )hich #other tong!e and on social and e#otional factors$ Eight to ten havelang!age a)areness and readiness >ro# five to ten are dra#atic changes$ The #agic age is aro!nd seven or eight Seven or eight egin to #a+e sense of ad!lt )orld4hat this #eans for o!r teaching4ords are not eno!gh'ctivities sho!ld incl!de #ove#ents and involve the sense* o=ects and pict!res and "o!sho!ld de#onstrate )hat the" have to do$Pla" )ith the lang!ageLetthe#e(peri#ent)ithver"nat!ral stage* inthefirststagesofforeignlang!agelearning too$Lang!age as lang!age/eco#inga)areoflang!ageasso#ethingseparatefro#theeventsta+ingplaceta+esti#e$ Spo+en )orld is often acco#panied " the other cl!es to #eaning,facial e(pression*#ove#ent* etc$Reading and )riting are i#portant for the child3s gro)ing a)areness of lang!age and fortheir o)n gro)th in the lang!age$Variet" in the classroo#Variet" is a #!st activit"* pace* organi-ation* voice$Ro!tines Children enefit fro# +no)ing the r!les and eing fa#iliar )ith the sit!ation$ The" haves"ste#s and ro!tines$ The" !se fa#iliar sit!ations* fa#iliar activities$ The" repeat stories*rh"#es* etc$Cooperation not co#petition'void re)ards and pri-es$ Other for#s are #ore effective* li+e shared e(periences areso!rce of lang!age )or+ and at#osphere of involve#ent$ Gro!p the children$Gra##ar9o) good the" are in a foreign lang!age is not dependent on )hether the" have learnt thegra##ar r!lesornot$ >e) are ale to cope )ithgra##arF the"are not !s!all" #at!reeno!ghtotal+ao!t it$ Incl!dethearest #ini#!#of gra##ar* theest ti#etointrod!ce si#ple gra##ar is )hen a p!pil as+s for an e(planation or )hen "o! thin+ a p!pil)ill enefit fro# learning so#e gra##ar$ Correcting)ritten)or+#ightornoteappropriatetoco#pare)hathappensinthe#othertong!einthe sa#esit!ation$ E(planationssho!ldegiven onaindivid!al,gro!pasis )hen the p!pils the#selves are as+ing the .!estions$'ssess#ent It is !sef!l for the teacher to #a+e reg!lar notes ao!t each child3s progress* tal+ing tochildren reg!larl" ao!t their )or+ and enco!raging* stressing the positive side of thingsand pla"ing$)) C!ass 4anage4ent an- at4oshere4hat is an ideal teacher's a teacher of "o!ng children it helps a lot if "o! have a sense of h!#o!r* "o!3reopen,#inded* adaptale* patient* etc$ !t if "o! are silent* reserved t"pe* "o! can)or+ "o!r attit!de and ailities$'ilitiesLearn to sing or even pla" a #!sical instr!#ent* #i#e* act and dra)$'ttit!desRespect "o!r p!pils and e realistic$ 's a teacher "o! have to appear to li+e all "o!rp!pils e.!all"$Children need to +no) that the teacher li+es the#* feel sec!re in)hat "o!3re doing$9elping the children to feel sec!reOncechildrenfeelsec!rethe"cane enco!ragetoeco#eindependent$P!pilsneed to +no) )hat is happening$ Respect "o!r p!pils$ 4henever a p!pil is tr"ing to tell "o! so#ething* accept )hatever he or she sa"s$Constant* direct correction is not effective$Ideal p!pils sho!ldn3t la!gh at others3 #ista+es 7r!les of the class8$ Children of allages are so#eti#es !n+ind to each other )itho!t #eaning to e$Estalish ro!tines& tal+ ao!t ne)s* have a oo+ of the #onth* irthda" calendar*)eather chart$ Thesero!tines !ild!p fa#iliarit" andsec!rit" for othagegro!ps$Givethechildren the responsiilit" for doing practical =os$ 'voidorgani-edco#petitions$ Lang!age learning is a sit!ation )here ever"one can )in$ 'void givingph"sical re)ard or pri-es$ Incl!de* don3t e(cl!de$:on3t give children English na#es$The ph"sical s!rro!ndingChildren respond )ellto s!rro!nding )hich are pleasant and fa#iliar$P!t at the)alls calendars* posters* postcards*p!pils3dra)ings*)riting* etc* !t stillleaves"o! space to )or+$ Enco!rage the children to ring in o=ects* tell the rest of theclass a little it ao!t the# in English$ 1ar+ files and o(es$Gro!ping the childrenNotallchildren)ill ta+etopairandgro!p)or+atonce$ >iveandsi("earsareoften happiest )or+ing alone* cooperation is so#ething )hich has to e n!rt!redand learnt$ The" often develop a gro!p identit"$ This t"pe of arrange#ent #a+es iteasier to see )hen p!pils are read" cooperate )ith other p!pils$Pair )or+ Pair )or+ is !sef!l and efficient$ Let p!pils )ho are sitting near each other )or+ together* don3t #ove des+s Estalish a ro!tine for pair )or+ Not all pairs )ill finish at the sa#e ti#e$ :on3t e te#pted to let the pair )or+contin!e !ntil ever"one has finished /e on the loo+ o!t for p!pils )ho si#pl" do not li+e each other Go thro!gh )hat "o! )ant p!pils to do efore "o! p!t the# into their pairsGro!p )or+Introd!cing gro!p )or+If"o!r p!pils arenot !sedto)or+ingro!ps* "o!canintrod!cethe#grad!all" to gro!p )or+$%$ 9aving teaching gro!ps 2 gro!ps )hich "o! teach separatel" fro# the rest ofthe class0$ Introd!cing self,reliant gro!ps 2 )hich are given so#ething to do on theiro)n6$ Start )ith =!st one gro!p$ Tell the# clearl" )hat the p!rpose is;$ Go thro!gh this process )ith all the gro!ps efore "o! let the )hole class)or+ in gro!ps at the sa#e ti#eN!#ersLi#it n!#ers in the gro!p to et)een three and five$4ho )or+s )ith )ho#LChildren sho!ld not e allo)ed to choose their gro!ps eca!se this ta+es a lot ofti#e and !s!all" so#eone is left o!t$ So#eti#es gro!p the# according to ailit"$Classroo# lang!ageIfcooperationandco##!nicationaretoepartoftheprocessoflearningalang!age as )ell as part of the process of gro)ing !p* then the sooner the p!pilslearn si#ple* #eaningf!l e(pressions in English* the easier it )ill e$9ere are so#e faces )hich all "o!r p!pils sho!ld learn as soon as possile$Notethat the" sho!ld e ta!ght as phrases not as )ords or str!ct!res$:o re#e#er please and than+ "o!$ So do the )ords for all the things in theclassroo#$Tr" to spea+ English as #!ch of the ti#e as "o! can* !sing #i#e* acting* p!ppetsand an" other #eans "o! can thin+ of$ @o!r p!pils are !nli+el" to have theopport!nit" to hear English all da"* +eep "o!r lang!age si#ple !t nat!ral* and +eepit at their level$@o! )ill have to decide for "o!rself ho) #!ch #other tong!e "o! !se 2 it dependsver" largel" on "o!r o)n individ!al class$ @o! can al)a"s conve" the #eaning of )hat"o! are sa"ing " the tone of voice and od" lang!age 2 "o! don3t al)a"s have tos)itch lang!ages$The Nat(ra! Aroach#ac=gro(n-In %CAA Trac" Terrell 7teacher of Spanish in California8 o!tlined a proposal for aPne)3 philosoph"of lang!ageteachingcalledNat!ral 'pproach$ This)asan atte#pt todevelop a lang!age teaching proposal that incorporated the nat!ralistic principlesresearchers had identified in st!dies of second lang!age ac.!isition$ The Nat!ral 'pproachgre) o!t of Terrell3s e(periences teaching Spanish classes* in ele#entar" 2 to advanced,level classes and )ith other lang!ages$ Terrell =oined forces )ith Stephen Grashen 7appliedling!ist at the Dniversit" of So!thern California8 in elaorating a theoretical rationale forthe Nat!ral 'pproach$ Grashen and Terrell identified the Nat!ral 'pproach )ith )hat the" calltraditional approaches 7definedas asedon the!seof lang!age in co##!nicativesit!ations )itho!t reco!rse to the native lang!age and gra##atical drilling* or a partic!lartheor" of gra##ar8 to lang!age teaching$ The" noted that s!ch approaches have eencallednat!ral* ps"chological* phonetic* ne)* refor#* direct* anal"tic* i#itativeandsoforth$ Therearei#portantdifferenceset)eentheNat!ral 'pproachandtheolderNat!ral 1ethod$ The Nat!ral 1ethod is another ter# for )hat " %CEE )as the :irect 1ethod& the#ethod consisted of a series of #onolog!es " the teacher )ith e(changes of .!estion andans)er )ith the p!pil in the foreign lang!age$ 4ith gestic!lation* attentive listening andrepetition the learner ca#e to associate certain acts and o=ects )ith certainco#inations of the so!nds and finall" he reprod!ced the foreign )ords or phrases$ Theter#nat!ral e#phasi-edthat the principles !nderl"ing the #ethod)ereelieved to confor# to the principles of nat!ralistic lang!age learning in "o!ng children$Si#ilarl"* the Nat!ral 'pproach is elieved to confor# to the nat!ralistic principles fo!ndin s!ccessf!l second lang!age ac.!isition$ Dnli+e the :irect 1ethod it places less e#phasison teacher #onolog!es* direct repetition and for#al .!estions and ans)ers* and less foc!son acc!rate prod!ction of target,lang!age sentences$ In the Nat!ral 'pproach there is ane#phasis on e(pos!re* or inp!t* rather than practice$AroachTheory o. !ang(ageGrashen and Terrell see co##!nication as the pri#ar" f!nction of lang!age and the"refer to the Nat!ral 'pproach as an e(a#ple of a co##!nicative approach$ The Nat!ral'pproachissi#ilartootherco##!nicativeapproacheseingdevelopedtoda"$ The"re=ect earlier #ethods oflang!ageteaching* s!chas the'!dioling!al 1ethod* )hichvie)edgra##arasthecentral co#ponentoflang!age$ The#a=orprole#)iththese#ethods )as that the" )ere !ilt not aro!nd act!al theories of lang!age ac.!isition* !ttheories of so#ething else 7e($& the str!ct!re of lang!age8$ 4hat Grashen and Terrell dodescrie ao!t the nat!re of lang!age e#phasi-es the pri#ac" of #eaning$ The i#portanceof the voca!lar" is stressed 7e($ & a lang!age is essentiall" its le(icon and onl"inconse.!entl"thegra##ar thatdeter#inesho)thele(iconise(ploitedtoprod!ce#essages8$Lang!age is vie)ed as a vehicle for co##!nicating #eanings and #essages$ Grashenand Terrell stated that ac.!isition can ta+e place onl" )hen people !nderstand #essagesin the target lang!age$The" vie) lang!age learning* as do a!dioling!ists* as #aster" ofstr!ct!res " stages$ The inp!t h"pothesis states that in order for ac.!ires to progressto the ne(t stage in the ac.!isition of the target lang!age* the" need to !nderstand inp!tlang!age that incl!des a str!ct!re that is part of the ne(t stage 7Grashen3s for#!la PI %38$TheNat!ral 'pproachth!sass!#es a ling!istichierarch"of str!ct!ral co#ple(it"that one #asters thro!gh enco!nters )ith inp!t containing str!ct!res at the PI %3 level$Theory o. !earningGrashen and Terrell #a+e contin!ing reference to the theoretical and reearch aseclai#ed to !nderlie the Nat!ral 'pproach and that the #ethod is !ni.!e in having s!ch aase$ it is ased on an e#piricall" gro!ndedtheor" of second lang!age ac.!isitions!pported " scientific st!dies ina variet" of lang!age ac.!isition and learning conte(ts$The principal tenets on )hich the Nat!ral 'pproach theor" is ased are& The 'c.!isition5Learning 9"pothesis& it clai#s that there are 0 distinctive )a"s ofdevelopingco#petenceinasecondorforeignlang!age$Ac>(isitionreferstoan!nconscio!s process that involves the nat!ralistic develop#ent of lang!ageproficienc" thro!gh !nderstanding lang!age and thro!gh !sing lang!age for#eaningf!l co##!nication$Learning%"contrast* referstoaprocessin)hichconscio!sr!lesao!talang!agearedeveloped$ Itres!ltsine(plicit+no)ledgeao!t the for#s of a lang!age and the ailit" to verali-e this +no)ledge$ >or#alteaching is necessar" for learning to occ!r* and correction of errors helps )iththe develop#ent of learned r!les$ Learning cannot lead to ac.!isition$ The1onitor9"pothesis& itclai#sthat)e#a"call !ponlearned+no)ledgetocorrect o!rselves )hen )e co##!nicate* !t that conscio!s learning has onl" thisf!nction$ 6 conditions li#it the !se of the #onitor&%$ Ti4e& s!fficient ti#e to choose and appl" a learned r!le$0$ ?oc(s on .or4& foc!s on correctness or on the for# of the o!tp!t6$ @no$!e-ge o. r(!es& the"#!stesi#pletodescrieandnotre.!ireco#ple( #ove#ents and rearrange#ents$ The Nat!ral Order 9"pothesis&it clai#s that the ac.!isition of gra##aticalstr!ct!res proceeds in apredictaleorder$ Certain gra##atical str!ct!res or#orphe#es are ac.!ired efore others in first lang!age ac.!isition of English andin second lang!age ac.!isition$ Errors are signs of nat!ralistic develop#entalprocesses andd!ring ac.!isition 7not in learning8 si#ilar develop#ental errorsocc!r$ TheInp!t 9"pothesis&it clai#s toe(plaintherelationshipet)een )hat thelearner is e(posed to of a lang!age 7the inp!t8 and lang!age ac.!isition$ It involves ;#ain iss!es&%$ The h"pothesis relates to ac.!isition* not to learning$0$ People ac.!ire lang!age est " !nderstanding inp!t slightl" e"ond theirc!rrent level of co#petence$6$ The ailit" to spea+ fl!entl" cannot e ta!ght directl" 7it e#erges inti#e8$;$ If there is s!fficient .!antit" of co#prehensile inp!t 7!tterances thatthe learner !nderstand ased on the conte(t in )hich the" are !sed as)ell asthelang!agein)hichthe"arephrased8* I%)ill !s!all"eprovided a!to#aticall"$ The'ffective>ilter9"pothesis&Grashenseesthelearner3se#otional stateorattit!des as an ad=!stalefilter that freel" passes* i#pedes* or loc+s inp!tnecessar" to ac.!isition$' lo) affective filter is desirale 7it i#pedes or loc+sless the inp!t8$ The h"pothesis is !ilt on research in second lang!age ac.!isition*)hich has identified 6 +inds of affective or attit!dinal variales& 1' 2oti3ation)' 6e!.Acon.i-ence3' AnBietyThish"pothesisstatesthatac.!irers)ithlo)affectivefiltersee+andreceive#ore inp!t* interact* and are #ore receptive to the inp!t the" receive$ 'n(io!s ac.!irershave a high affective filter* )hich prevents ac.!isition$To s(4; 's #!ch co#prehensile inp!t as possile$ 4hatever helps co#prehension is i#portant 7e($& vis!al aids help to the voca!lar"8$ The foc!s in classroo#& listening and reading$ Spea+ing e#erges$ To lo) the affective filter& st!dent )or+ sho!ld center on #eaningf!lco##!nication rather than on for# and there sho!ld e interesting inp!t$DesignObCecti3esTheNat!ral 'pproachisforeginnersandis designedtohelpthe#eco#einter#ediates$ St!dents )ill e ale to f!nction ade.!atel" in the target sit!ation$ The")ill !nderstandthespea+er ofthetarget lang!age* and)ill ealetoconve"theirre.!ests and ideas$ The" need not +no) ever" )ord nor need the s"nta( and voca!lar" toe fla)less$ The" sho!ld e ale to #a+e #eaning clear !t not necessaril" e acc!rate$9o)ever* specific o=ectives depend on learner needs and the s+ill 7reading* )riting*listening* or spea+ing8 and level eing ta!ght$Grashen and Terrell elieve that it is i#portant to co##!nicate to learners )hat the" cane(pect of a co!rse as )ell as )hat the" sho!ld not e(pect$The sy!!ab(sGrashen and Terrell approach co!rse organi-ation fro# 0 points of vie)$ >irst* the"list so#e t"pical goals for lang!age co!rses and s!ggest )hich of the# are the ones at)hich the Nat!ral 'pproach ai#s$ The goals are in ; areas&%$ /asic personal co##!nication s+ills& oral$0$ /asic personal co##!nication s+ills& )ritten$6$ 'cade#ic learning s+ills& oral$;$ 'cade#ic learning s+ills& )ritten$The Nat!ral 'pproach is pri#aril" designed to develop asic co##!nication s+ills,othoral and )ritten$ Co##!nication goals #a" e e(pressed in ter#s of sit!ations* f!nctionsand topics$ This approach to s"lla!s design )o!ld appear to derive to so#e e(tent fro#threshold level specifications$Content selection sho!ld ai# to create a lo) affective filter " eing interestingand fostering a friendl"* rela(ed at#osphere* a )ide e(pos!re to voca!lar" and resist an"foc!s on gra##atical str!ct!res$Tyes o. !earning an- teaching acti3ities'class ta!ght according to theNat!ral 'pproach* e#phasis is on presentingco#prehensileinp!t inthetarget lang!age$ Teacher tal+foc!ses ono=ects intheclassroo# and on he content of pict!res$ Learners are not re.!ired to sa" an"thing !ntilthe" feel read"* !t the" are e(pected to respond to teacher co##ands and .!estions$Theteachertal+sslo)l"anddistinctl"* as+ing.!estionsandelicitingone,)ordans)ers$ 'c.!isition activities aree#phasi-ed$ Pair or gro!p)or+#a" ee#plo"ed*follo)ed " )hole,class disc!ssion led " the teacher$4hat characteri-es the Nat!ral 'pproach is the !se of fa#iliar techni.!es )ithinthe fra#e)or+ of a #ethod that foc!ses on providing co#prehensile inp!t and aclassroo# environ#ent that c!es co#prehension of inp!t* #ini#i-es learner an(iet"* and#a(i#i-es learner self,confidence$Learner ro!es Learners3 roles are seen to change according to their stage of ling!isticdevelop#ents$ In the pre,prod!ction stage* st!dents participate in the lang!age activit" )itho!thaving to respond in the target lang!age$In the earl",prod!ction stage* st!dents respond to either,or .!estions* !se single)ords and short phrases* fill in charts* and !se fi(ed conversational patterns$In the speech,e#ergent phase* st!dents involve the#selves in role pla" and ga#es*contri!te personal infor#ations and opinions* and participate in gro!p prole# solving$; +inds of responsiilities for learners&%$ Provide infor#ation ao!t t=eir specific goals0$ Ta+e an active role in ens!ring co#prehensile inp!t$6$ :ecide )hen to start prod!cing speech and )hen to !pgrade it$;$ 4here learning e(ercises are to e part* decide )ith the teacher the a#o!nt ofti#e devoted to the# and co#plete and correct the#$Teacher ro!esThe Nat!ral 'pproach teacher has 6 roles$ >irst* the teacher is the pri#ar" so!rceofco#prehensileinp!tinthetargetlang!age$ Theteacherisre.!iredtogenerateaconstantflo)oflang!ageinp!t)hileprovidinga#!ltiplicit"ofnon,ling!isticcl!estoassist st!dents in interpreting the inp!t$ There is a center,stage role for the teacher$Second* the teacher creates a classroo# at#osphere that is interesting* friendl"and in )hich there is lo) affective filter$ This is achieved in part thro!gh s!ch Nat!ral'pproach techni.!es as not de#anding speech fro# the st!dents efore the" are read"*not correcting their errors and providing s!=ect of high interest to st!dents$>inall"* the teacher #!st choose and orchestrate a rich #i( of classroo# activities*involving a variet" of gro!p si-es* content and conte(ts$ The teacher is seen as responsilefor collecting #aterials and !sing the#$TheNat!ral 'pproachteacher has toco##!nicateclearl" andco#pellingl"tost!dents the ass!#ptions* organi-ation* and e(pectations of the #ethod$The ro!e o. instr(ctiona! 4ateria!sThepri#ar" goal of #aterials in the Nat!ral 'pproach is to #a+eclassroo#activities as #eaningf!l as possile " s!ppl"ing the e(traling!istic conte(t that helps theac.!irer to !nderstand and there" to ac.!ire " relating classroo# activities to the real)orld* and " fostering real co##!nication a#ong the learners$ There pri#ar" ai# is topro#ote co#prehension and co##!nication$ 7e(& pict!res* vis!al aids* sched!les* roch!res*advertise#ents* #aps and oo+s$8$Proce-(reTo ill!strate proced!ral aspects of the Nat!ral 'pproach* there are so#e classroo#activities that provide co#prehensile inp!t* )itho!t re.!iring prod!ction of responses or#ini#al responses in the target lang!age&%$ Start )ith TPR 7Total Ph"sical Response8 co##ands$ 't first the co##andsare si#ple$0$ Dse TPRto teachna#es of od" parts andto introd!ce n!#ers andse.!ence$6$ Introd!ce classroo# ter#s and props into co##ands$ 'n" ite# )hich can ero!ght to the class can e incorporated$;$ Dse na#es of ph"sical characteristics and clothing to identif" #e#ers ofthe class " na#e$ Dsing #i#e* pointing and conte(t to ens!reco#prehension$