Post on 04-Apr-2018
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Validity and Reliability
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Validity and Reliability
There are two major criteria for evaluatingmeasurements (instruments):
Validity Have we measured the concept that we intend to measure?
Validity is an indication of how sound your research is.
Validity is the accuracy of your measurement.
Reliability Is there consistency in our measurement?
Validity and reliability are usually complementary
concepts.
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Goodness ofMeasure
( How wellhave you
measured the
concept?)
Validity(Are we
measuring the
right concept?)
Reliability( Are the
measuresconsistent
and
accurate?)
Content
Criterion
Construct
Predictive
(Independent
Variable)
Criterion
(Dependent
Variable)
Stability( overtime & situation)Test-retestAlt-form
ConsistencySplit-HalfInter-item reliability
(How well the items are
linked together as a set?)
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Validity and Reliability
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Please Note
Reliability is a necessary condition for validity.
Researchers often use the instruments tested earlier.
Validity and reliability are the strengths of ourconclusion and inferences.
Example
Weighing Machine
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Purposes of Sampling
There are two basic purposes of sampling:
To estimate population parameters
To test hypothesis
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Methods of SamplingProbability Sampling
Simple random sampling
Stratified random sampling
Systematic sampling Cluster and multistage sampling
Non-Probability Sampling Purposive sampling Convenient (grab) sampling
Quota (stratification) sampling
Snowball (chain, hard-to-reach population) sampling
l f
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Potential Sources of Error
Sampling Error (Random Error) Selecting non-representative samples.
This error may be the result of chance. Even if you are careful,this error will take place.
The main protection against this kind of error is to use a largerenough sample.
Non-Sampling Error (Systematic Error)
Non-sampling error (also called bias) is a more serious problem.This cannot be controlled by making the sample size bigger.
Response Error
Researcher Error (Population definition, measurement, dataanalysis)
Interviewer Error (Respondent selection, questioning,cheating, recording)
Response Error (unwillingness)
Non-response Error
Refusals
Not-at-home
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RESEARCH PROPOSAL
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RESEARCH PROPOSAL
A research proposal is a critical element in the research
process.
A research proposal is a contract between theresearcher and the client for whom the research is
being performed.
The research proposal once accepted, becomes theblueprint for the implementation of the project.
The research proposal works as a benchmark againstwhich the final outcome is assessed.
A research proposal is a work plan, an outline,a
framework, and a statement of intent.
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A research proposal is an offer by theresearcher to the buyer.
to produce a research product, or
to render a service.
A research proposal tells What, when, where and to whom the
research will be done. Expected output. Application of the output.
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DIFFERENT TYPES OF RESEARCH PROPOSALS
Internal prepared by the staff of the organization. External submitted in response to a request for
bid. Academic prepared for an academic degree.
Internal and external proposals have problem-
solving orientation. Academic proposals focus on knowledge
generation.
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SOLICITED Vs UNSOLICITED PROPOSALS
Asolicited proposal is developed in response to a request for proposal(RFP).
It has to compete against several others. It concentrates on known problems. It proposes an appropriate research design to address the
problem. Research objectives are known; therefore, problem
statement is brief. Qualification, resources, budgets and schedules are
emphasized.
An unsolicited proposal is a request to sponsor the project. It does not have to compete against others. Its difficulty is to find the problem facing the management. It lays greater emphasis on problem statement and
objectives. Qualification of the researcher is emphasized.
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RESEARCH PROPOSAL MODULES
Executive Summary
Background Information Statement of the Problem Literature Review Objectives, Research Questions, Hypotheses Importance, Significance or Need of the Study
Research MethodsResearch DesignPopulation and SamplingData Analysis
Research Plan (House-keeping Arrangements)Time-frameBudget and ResourcesProject ManagementEquipment and Instruments
Qualification of the Researchers References
Appendices
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Proposal Development Process
The management describes the problem and states themanagement questions.
The researcher translates these management questions intoresearch questions.
These research questions are further elaborated into
investigative questions.
The draft research proposal is proposed.
The management and the researcher discuss the proposal; andrefine it.
The final research proposal is submitted.
The proposal is approved.
The study begins.
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Components of Academic Research Proposals
Title
Background information
Statement of the problem
Literature review and theoretical framework
Objectives
Research questions or hypotheses Research methods
References