LEADERSHIP

The Issues

Definition of interpersonal powerThe bases of powerCommon leadership models

The selection and training implications of each model

How to manage neutralizers and substitutes for leadership

Comments on Power & Politics

“Power is America’s last dirty word. It is easier to talk about money—and much easier to talk about sex—than it is to talk about power.” (Kantor, 1979, p. 65).

“…those who love laws and sausages should not watch either being made…. We honor leaders for what they achieve, but we often prefer to close our eyes to the way they achieve it” (Pfeffer, 1992, p. 33).

“…the qualities required for leadership are not necessarily those that we would want our children to emulate—unless we wanted them to be leaders” (Pfeffer, 1992, p. 33).

Interpersonal Power

Definition The ability to influence others and maintain control over your own fate

Legitimate

Reward

Coercive

Referent(charismatic)

Expert

Resource

Bases Of Power

Legitimate Power

Exists when one person believes that another person has the right to influence him or her (authority)

Reward Power

Exists when one person believes another person can and will provide or withhold rewards

Coercive Power

Exists when one person believes another person can and will provide or withhold punishment

Referent (Charismatic) Power

Exists when one person finds another attractive and wants to be associated with or affiliated with that person

Expert Power

Exists when one person believes another person has desired expertise and is willing to share or withhold it

Resource Power

Exists when one person believes that another person has desired (nonexpert) resources and is willing to share or withhold them

Principles of Power

Power is perception based

Power is relative

Power bases must be coordinated

Power is a double-edged sword (used and abused)

LEADERSHIP

Definition: An interpersonal process in which influence is exercised in a social system for the achievement of organizational goals by others

Purpose

To achieve organizational and personal goals

To develop commitment to the organization

To be satisfied with the leadership process

FOR DISCUSSION

Anyone can become a good leader

Good leadersare born

Match leader to situation

One “best kind” of leader

?

?

ORGANIZING PERSPECTIVEFocal C

on

str

uct

Theoretical Approach

Universal Traits

Situation-Contingent

Traits

Situation-Contingent Behaviors

Universal Behaviors

Traits

Behaviors

Universal Contingent

UNIVERSAL LEADERSHIP TRAITS MODEL

Assumption: Possible to identify the person who has “the right stuff” to be a good leader in any situation

Cont.

Physical characteristicsSocial backgroundIntellectual abilityPersonality

Some Purported Traits

UNIVERSAL LEADERSHIP TRAITS MODEL

Assumption: Possible to identify the person who has “the right stuff” to be a good leader in any situation

Cont.

Physical characteristicsSocial backgroundIntellectual abilityPersonality

Some Purported Traits

Energy levelSelf-confidenceNeed for achievementNeed for power

Some Promising Traits

A CONTEMPORARY UNIVERSAL TRAIT MODEL?Transformational (Charismatic) Leadership

TransformationalLeaders

TransactionalLeaders

Cont.

Focus on self-interest through exchange with the organization (the Path-Goal Model is an example)

Focus on development of trust, confidence, admiration, loyalty, and commitment. This is an inspirational leader.

TRAITS OF TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERS

High self-confidenceArticulates a visionAssumes personal risk to pursue visionUses unconventional strategiesPerceives self as change agent

UNIVERSAL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS MODELAssumption: Possible to identify the behaviors required to be a good leader in any situation

Cont.

The degree to which a leader clarifies and defines roles for followers

Initiating Structure

The degree to which a leader attends to the welfare, comfort, needs, and satisfaction of followers

Consideration Behavior

From Leadership Dilemmas - Grid Solutions, by Robert R. Blake and Anne Adams McCanse. © 1991 by Robert R. Blake and the Estate of Jane S. Mouton.Used with permission. All rights reserved.

1,9Country Club Mgt

9,9 Team Mgt

Authority- Obedience

9,1

Impoverished1,1

Organization Man Mgt

5,5

High

Low

Co

nce

rn f

or

Peo

pl e

HighLow Concern for Production

MANAGERIAL GRID™

UNIVERSAL BEHAVIORS EXAMPLE

SITUATION-CONTINGENT LEADERSHIP TRAITS MODEL

Assumption: Possible to create a match between the situation and traits of the leader

Cont.

Logic Find stable leader characteristics Find important situational

characteristics Find or produce a match between

leader and situation Fiedler’s Contingency Model

Example

FIEDLER’S CONTINGENCY MODEL

Key Leader Trait

Relationship- vs. task orientation

Key Situational Characteristics

Degree to which the leader or followers have control over the situation

Called “situational favorableness” and measured by

Leader-member relations

Task structure

Leader position powerCont.

LEADER-SITUATION MATCHES & PERFORMANCE

GoodGood

11

PoorPoor

High High StructureStructure

High High StructureStructure

Low Low StructureStructure

Low Low StructureStructure

StrongStrongPowerPower

WeakWeakPowerPower

StrongStrongPowerPower

WeakWeakPowerPower

StrongStrongPowerPower

WeakWeakPowerPower

StrongStrongPowerPower

WeakWeakPowerPower

Leader-Leader-MemberMemberRelationsRelations

TaskTaskStructureStructure

PositionPositionPowerPower

PreferredPreferredLeadershipLeadershipStyleStyle

22 33 44 55 66 77 88

Low LPCsLow LPCsMiddle LPCsMiddle LPCs High LPCsHigh LPCs

LowLow LPCsLPCs

SITUATION-CONTINGENT LEADERSHIP BEHAVIOR MODELAssumption: Possible to create a match between the situation and the behaviors of the leader

Cont.

Logic Help followers perform effectively by providing direction Make rewards (thus, satisfaction) contingent on performance Be perceived as instrumental in

obtaining satisfactionEvans & House’s Path-Goal Model

Example

KEY LEADER BEHAVIORS

Directive (structure)

Supportive (consideration)

Achievement-oriented (creating and defining challenges and opportunities to succeed)

Participative (involving followers in problem-solving and decision-making)

SITUATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS

FollowersAuthoritarianism

Locus of control

Task-related ability

Need for achievement

EnvironmentalNature of task (structuring? rewarding?)

Formal authority (does leader have authority?)

Primary work group (structuring? rewarding?)

Cont.Cont.

SELECTION & TRAINING IMPLICATIONS

Focal C

on

str

uct

Theoretical Approach

Universal Traits

Situation-Contingent

Traits

Situation-Contingent Behaviors

Universal Behaviors

Traits

Behaviors

Universal Contingent

UNIVERSAL TRAIT MODEL

Identify critical traits

Find people with these traits and appoint them leaders

Encourage leaders to exhibit key traits

SELECTION & TRAINING IMPLICATIONS

UNIVERSAL BEHAVIOR MODEL

Identify critical behaviors

Find people with these behaviors and appoint them leaders

Teach leaders to behave appropriately

Encourage leaders to behave appropriately

OR

SELECTION & TRAINING IMPLICATIONS

SITUATION-CONTINGENT TRAIT MODEL

Assess critical situation characteristics

Assess traits of leaders

Place leaders into situations where traits will be effective

(Re)Engineer situation so current leaders’ traits become effective

OR

SELECTION & TRAINING IMPLICATIONS

SITUATION-CONTINGENT BEHAVIOR MODEL

Assess characteristics of followers (e.g., personality)Assess characteristics of the environment (e.g., task structure, authority, group factors)Appoint leaders who behave appropriately for situation

Teach leaders how to behave for situation

Change situation to match behavior of leader

SELECTION & TRAINING IMPLICATIONS

OR

OR

NEUTRALIZERS OF AND SUBSTITUTES FOR LEADERSHIP

Factors that reduce the ability of leaders to exert influence

Substitutes

Factors that reduce the necessity for leadership

Neutralizers

POTENTIAL NEUTRALIZERS

Indifference toward (or unavailability of) organizational rewards

Low leader position power

Environmental inflexibility (e.g., rigid rules & procedures)

Limited interaction of leaders and followers

POTENTIAL SUBSTITUTES

Follower ability, training, and experienceProfessional orientation of followersTask structure (routine, unambiguous)Feedback from the task itselfIntrinsically satisfying tasksWork group cohesivenessFormalization (e.g., plans, goals, responsibilities)

Leader

The Issues

Definition of interpersonal powerThe bases of powerCommon leadership models

The selection and training implications of each model

How to manage neutralizers and substitutes for leadership