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Table of Contents
Chapter 1: Introduction......................................................................................................2
Context of the Study.....................................................................................................2
An Historical Background to the Study of Eighteenth-Century Opera...............2
The Development of Recitative.........................................................................12
Concepts of Recitative in Opera........................................................................17
A Distinction between the Notation and Performance Practice of Recitative...25
The Neapolitan Intermezzo and Opera Buffa....................................................29
La Serva Padrona...............................................................................................34
Giovanni Battista Pergolesi...............................................................................37
Giovanni Paisiello.............................................................................................39
Expected Similarities and Differences in their Settings of La Serva Padrona . 42
Aims of the Study.......................................................................................................46
Significance of the Study...................................................................................48
Chapter 2: The Study.......................................................................................................49
Selected Compositional Devices.................................................................................49
Rhythm used in setting the text.........................................................................49
Melody used for setting the text........................................................................50
Harmonies used in setting the text.....................................................................52
Keys used for setting the text............................................................................55
Compositional devices involving any combination of rhythm, melody, harmony
and key...............................................................................................................57
The Analysis...........................................................................................................59
Selected recitative sections for comparison......................................................59
Uberto bemoans Serpina's tardiness: Questa è per me disgrazia..................59
Uberto reveals his feelings for Serpina: Gran fatto!.....................................64
Serpina reveals her agenda: Adunque perch'io son serva.............................69
Uberto decides to act: Di che ride quell'asino?.............................................72
Serpina's emotional blackmail: Insomma delle somme................................74
Uberto decides to take a wife: Sì, fermati, guardami....................................77
Serpina's deception begins: Io crederei.........................................................82
Serpina finds a 'fiancé': Cred'io che sì: fa d'uopo ancor ch'io pensi a' casi
miei...............................................................................................................86
Uberto is concerned about Serpina's fate: Vuol vedere il mio sposo?..........89
Uberto in turmoil: Ah poveretta lei! Per altro penserei................................93
The Dénouement - Serpina becomes Mistress: L'ha detto ... Sì, signore.. .105
Chapter 3: Conclusion...................................................................................................109
Appendix 1: Notes on scores used in the study....................................................116
References ...........................................................................................................118
Sound Recordings................................................................................................125
Page 1 of 125
Chapter 1: Introduction
Context of the Study
An Historical Background to the Study of Eighteenth-Century Opera
In the context of Western music,1 there are works2 in which text and music
are synergetically combined. The combination produces a different form of
communication from that possible through either medium alone. Music works involving
this combination of text and music can be for a solo voice or for an ensemble of voices,
either accompanied by instruments or unaccompanied. The works include songs,
recitatives, arias, and choral pieces.
A synergetic combination of music with text can be used to clarify, amplify
or modify the drama inherent in the text.3 This practice has its origins in Classical Greek
culture, in particular, the performances of the choral dancers in Greek Tragedy. In this
genre, a dichotomy between Apollonian and Dionysian ideals was expressed. The term
Dionysian is derived from Dionysos, the Greek god of wine, drama, and ecstasy. By
contrast, the term Apollonian is derived from Apollo, the Greek sun-god associated with
poetry and music. Smith (2011, p. 12-13) states that the term Dionysian "carries
connotations of chaos, intoxication, lack of self-control, and extremes of experience and
expression, both physical and emotional." By contrast, he notes that the term Apollonian
"carries connotations of order, sobriety, discipline, and rational behaviour." This is a
common understanding of the two ideals within the drama.
Late Medieval thought was strongly influenced by Classical Greek culture,
especially following the rediscovery in 1416 of the writings of the Roman rhetorician
Quintilianus (c 35 - c 100 BC). In his treatise Institutio Oratoria, Quintilianus codified
1 For the purposes of this study 'Western' music is defined as music commonly understood by
musicians, music historians and university academics to be written in the tradition that originated with
European music of the Middle Ages and passed through the Renaissance, Baroque, Classic, and
Romantic styles.
2 For the purposes of this study, a music 'work' is a document comprising any system representing
aurally perceived music through the use of written symbols.
3 For the purposes of this study, 'drama' is defined as a sequence of events and/or human emotions,
communicated through words and/or actions, intended to be portrayed by actors in a staged
performance.
Page 2 of 125
Greek thought in relation to rhetoric, also known as “oratory”. Classical Greek and
Roman thought was a fundamental underpinning of Renaissance culture. As a result,
rhetoric was a significant element of educated discourse in the Renaissance.
During the Renaissance, the Apollonian ideal was manifest in the visual arts
and in architecture through concepts such as beauty, balance, order and permanence.
Many of these ideals are exemplified in the works of the painter Raffaello Sanzio da
Urbino (1483-1520).
A concept related to the Apollonian ideal (that was adopted from Classical
Greek culture) was that the universe is governed by unchanging mathematical
proportions. This concept has its roots in the writings of Pythagoras (570-495 BC), a
Greek philosopher and mathematician. Using the monochord - a device consisting of a
single string stretched tightly between a nut and a moveable bridge - Pythagoras
demonstrated that musical intervals thought to please the ear were determined by whole
number proportions. These intervals were the octave, the 5th and the 4th. They were
made by moving the bridge into positions of whole number ratios. The octave was made
by halving the original distance between the nut and bridge, that is using the ratio 1:2.
The 5th was made by moving the bridge into a position where the the ratio to the
original distance was 2:3, and the 4th by moving it to a position where the ratio was
3:4.4 Pythagoras and his followers believed that the distances between the planets, moon
and stars would have the same ratios as those which produced intervals in plucked
strings. They believed that the solar system consisted of a number of revolving
concentric spheres, on whose surfaces the planets, moon and stars were embedded. The
movement of the spheres would generate sound, and since the distances between them
corresponded to the ratios determined with the monochord, the sound would be a
pleasing harmony. Pythagorus termed this imaginary sound "the music of the spheres"
(Haar 2010, p.1).
During the Renaissance, an intricate polyphonic compositional style, linked
4 Pythagoras sought to demonstrate that intervals between notes in the music scale could be created out
of the simplest whole-number ratios. His method of creating a 12-tone scale involved stacking 5ths,
lowered by an octave where necessary. However, when the octave note was calculated as a perfect
fifth above the sixth tone, the resultant note was higher than the note produced when the original
distance between the bridges was halved. This discrepancy was noticed during the Renaissance, and it
helped to sow seeds of doubt about the validity of the perfectly ordered and predictable universe.
Page 3 of 125
with clearly defined rules emerged.5 Compositional application of the rules aimed to
produce the sense of balance and order which was favoured in Classical Greek culture.6
The compositional styles of Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina (1525-1594) and Tomas
Luis de Victoria (1548-1611) are regarded by many musicologists as the pinnacle of the
sixteenth-century polyphonic style.7 There was no codification during the Renaissance
of the compositional rules of the mature polyphonic compositional style, as exemplified
by the works of Palestrina.8 Apart from the inherent emotional impact of the words
themselves, emotional intensity in the works of Palestrina and Victoria could be the
result of compositional processes. Elements such as, for example, dissonance and word
painting intensified the emotional intensity. However, by the time these composers were
writing, the polyphonic style had become very intricate. Notwithstanding the Council of
Trent's edict that the words in sung masses should be clearly understood by the
congregation, there was a concern that it had become difficult to distinguish one word
from another.9
During the Renaissance, the revival of interest in Classical Greek and
Roman culture became manifest in a movement named 'humanism'. Followers of this
movement studied newly rediscovered ancient treatises on grammar, rhetoric, poetry,
history and moral philosophy.10 Included in the rediscoveries were works of early
theorists who examined notions of the association between emotion and word. The
treatises were written by theorists ranging from the ancient Greek period up until the
Medieval era. At the same time, there occurred the rediscovery and study of ancient
5 In 1558, Gioseffo Zarlino (1517-90), an Italian music theorist and composer, published a treatise on
composition titled Le Istitutioni Harmoniche. This treatise contained numerous rules, for example on
the placement and resolution of dissonance.
6 Works such as Palestrina's Missa Papae Marcelli (1567) are characterised by a preponderance of
consonance on strong beats and independent rhythms of the text in the voice parts.
7 Grout and Palisca (2001) state that Palestrina captured better than any other composer the essence of
the sober, conservative aspect of the Counter-Reformation (Grout and Palisca, 2001, p. 236).
8 Johann Joseph Fux (1660-1741) codified the compositional rules of the mature sixteenth-century
vocal style in his treatise Gradus ad Parnassum in 1725.
9 The Council of Trent, a council of the Roman Catholic Church which convened between 1545 and
1563, decreed that the words in sung masses should be clearly heard. In keeping with this decree
Palestrina, for example, wrote works such as the Missa Brevis (1570) and the Missa Papae Marcelli (1567), which by comparison to the uniformly contrapuntal Missa ad Fugam (1567), had more
homorhythmic voice parts, with the result that the text was more intelligible (Lockwood, 2011).
10 Haar (2010) defines 'humanism' as the study of the linguistic and rhetorical traditions of classical
antiquity (Haar, 2010, p.1).
Page 4 of 125
Classical Greek treatises on music.11 Quintilianus posited that music should be included
in the training of an orator because of its power to move the emotions in the listener. He
wrote: "Give me the knowledge of the principles of music, which have the power to
excite or assuage the emotions of mankind" (cited in Weiss and Taruskin, 2008, p. 12).
Weiss and Taruskin (2008, p. 10) maintain that late Renaissance humanists
were strongly influenced by the concept of the "musicalization" of speech in the service
of rhetoric, as advocated by Quintilianus. Adherents to the humanist movement began
to express concern that contemporaneous music was not able to move the emotions of
the listener in the way that the ancient music was said to have done. An influential
priest, Bernardino Cirillo, wrote in 1549:
You know how much music was valued among those good ancients as the finest of the fine arts.
With it they worked great effects that today we do not, either with rhetoric or oratory, in
controlling the passions and affections of the soul (Manuzio, 1564).
There were exceptions to Cirillo's observation, as noted by the Venetian
musician Gioseffo Zarlino (1517-1590). He stated that one composer, Adrian Willaert
(1490-1562), had achieved a level of emotional expression in music to parallel that of
the music of Classical Greek culture.12 Notwithstanding this, there was a concern
towards the end of the sixteenth century that the music had taken precedence over the
word. When text was set to music, natural speech rhythms and inflections were not
followed, but rather the words tended to be subjugated to the music's compositional
conventions and rules.
Wilson (2009, p. 2) notes that beginning in the Renaissance, composers had in
both secular and sacred music used various musical-rhetorical means to illustrate or
emphasize words and ideas in the text. An example is the use of long-held block chords
on important words in the works of fifteenth-century composers like Guillaume Du Fay
(ca. 1397-1474).13 A further example of the change in attitude to the text is found in the
11 An example was De Institutione Musica, written in the 6th century by Anicius Manlius Severinus
Boethius (ca. 480-524). This work drew heavily on the music treatises of the earlier scholars: Claudius
Ptolemy, Pythagoras, Euclid, and Aristoxenus. Other Classical Greek musical treatises which became
available included those of Bacchius Senior, Aristides Quintilianus, Claudius Ptolemy, Cleonides and
Euclid.
12 Zarlino's book Le Istitutioni Harmoniche of 1558 included an entire chapter on how to express and set
the words of a text to music expressively and faithfully.
13 In Du Fay's ballade Resveillies Vous et Faites Chiere, long duration block chords are heard on the
words: Charle gentil. This acclamation, meaning 'kind Carlo', refers to Carlo Malatesta.
Page 5 of 125
work of Nicola Vicentino (1511-1576), an Italian music theorist and composer. He is the
first to describe the level of volume as an expressive parameter. In his treatise published
in 1555 entitled L'Antica Musica Ridotta alla Moderna Prattica, he stated that
"gradation in the volume of singing should vary in careful correspondence to the
meaning of the text being sung" (cited in Wilson 2009, p. 4).
In a parallel change in thinking regarding the combination of text and music,
sixteenth-century German writers, aligned with the teachings of Martin Luther (1483-
1546), developed the concept of musica poetica. Music composed in Germany at that
time was primarily vocal music, and given the late Renaissance consciousness of
rhetoric, it was not surprising that theorists would draw analogies between the
composition of music and the composition of oratory or poetry. Bartel (1997, p. 22)
notes that musica poetica was "essentially vocal music in which the composer presented
the text in a musical oration". Luther held that "just as the spoken word is understood
intellectually, it is affectively perceived through song" (cited in Bartel 1997, p. 8).
Joachim Burmeister (1564-1629), a German music theorist, described musica poetica
as: "that discipline of music which teaches how to compose a musical composition ... in
order to sway the hearts and spirits of individuals into various dispositions" (Burmeister,
1606). Bartel (1997) provides a compendium of musical-rhetorical figures in German
Baroque music. He draws on treatises and other published works of fifteen music
theorists of the period, including Joachim Burmeister, Johann Mattheson and Johann
Nikolaus Forkel. He categorises the figures into seven groups. The category most
relevant to this study is "Figures of Representation and Depiction" (Bartel, 1997 p. 445).
These figures are small units of melody, rhythm or harmony (or any combination of
these) which heighten the meaning of the text. The scene was set for the emergence of
thinking that further explored notions of the association between word, music and
drama.
From the beginning of the fifteenth century, veneration of classical antiquity
had been a cultural trend among the citizens of the city of Florence. This trend of
increasing alliance with classical antiquity continued throughout the fifteenth and
sixteenth centuries. This city state was unique in Renaissance Italy in that almost the
Page 6 of 125
entire populace participated in cultural pursuits.14 In the late sixteenth century, a group
of Tuscan poets and composers, convinced that the Greek tragedies were sung in their
entirety, developed the concept of novel dramatic works which were to be completely
sung. Giulio Caccini (1551-1618) later referred to the group who initiated this
movement as the Florentine Camerata.
Girolamo Mei (1519-1594), a scholar, and Vicencenzo Galilei (c.1520-
1591), a musician and music theorist, were members of the Florentine Camerata.
Beginning in 1572, they corresponded frequently in letters regarding Classical Greek
and Roman concepts and uses of music. Mei suggested to the Camerata that the Greeks
obtained powerful emotional meaning in their tragedies by the use of a single melody in
contrast to polyphony. In a letter to Galilei, Mei argued:
Modern practice produces an overly complex texture, a myriad of musical lines whose individual
affects end up working at cross purposes. They nullify each other, so that the end result is no
affect at all (Palisca 1980, xii, pp. 67-8).
Galilei, in his treatise of 1581 entitled Dialogo della Musica Antica et della
Moderna, also attacked the theory and practice of vocal counterpoint. He argued that
only a single line of melody, with pitches and rhythms appropriate to the text could
express a given line of poetry.15 Referring to the rules of counterpoint, Galilei stated:
There is no one who does not consider these rules excellent for the mere delight the ear takes in
the variety of the harmonies, but for the expression of conceptions they are pestilent, being fit for
nothing but to make the concentus varied and full, and this is not always, indeed is never suited
to express any conception of the poet or the orator (Katz and Dalhaus 1989, p 64).
The Florentine Camerata's ethos became the imperative that communicating
the meaning of the text should have higher priority than adhering to the rules and
conventions of music composition of the time. Their belief was that the function of
music was to amplify and/or modify the dramatic impact of words. Rhythm and
accentuation in the music were to follow that of speech. Dissonance could be used more
freely to heighten the emotion implied in the text. In contrast to polyphony, a
14 In other Italian city states, such as Milan, Ferrara and Mantua, participation in cultural matters was
confined to the ducal courts. Florentines had begun to consider themselves as citizens of “new Athens
on the Arno” (Kimbell 1991, p. 2).
15 The term “monody” is now used to describe all styles of solo singing practised in the early years of
the seventeenth century, including arias, recitative and madrigals (Grout and Palisca 2001, p. 265).
Page 7 of 125
predominant effect of text-driven music was dissonance. The Camerata sought to
establish the ascendancy of their concept of a synergetic combination of text, music and
drama. Donington (1978, p. 20) states that their ideal became "a continuously unfolding
drama all in music (drama tutto per musica) of which the poetical structure follows the
poetry as flexibly and as faithfully as possible".16 Jacopo Peri, a member of the
Florentine Camerata, wrote the first music work intended to be a vehicle for their ideal.
This work, Dafne, first performed in 1597, is considered to be the first opera. Within the
work, Peri used a method of setting dialogue to music that lay between speech and song.
This became known as the stile recitativo or the recitative style.
The sixteenth-century polyphonic style exemplified by Palestrina coexisted
for some time with monody during the late sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Claudio
Monteverdi (1567-1643) coined the terms prima pratica and seconda pratica to
distinguish between the two styles of combining words and music. Prima pratica, also
referred to as stile antico, occurred where the music took precedence over the text. It
referred to the style of vocal polyphony codified by Zarlino in his treatise: Le Istitutioni
Harmoniche. Donington (1981, p. 41), noting the comparatively unstructured texture of
monody in comparison to polyphony, states: "monody is melody flexible enough to
combine dramatic action with musical expression". Seconda pratica became
established as an effective style for the combination of text, music and drama.
To create a drama tutto per musica or opera, a libretto,17 that is, a text
conducive to a dramatic musical setting, is required. Sources for libretti include
traditional stories and new stories. One source of traditional stories was the Commedia
dell'arte dell'improvvisazione. This term refers to a professional form of theatre
involving improvisation, which developed in Italy in the fifteenth century. The stock
characters and plots on which Commedia dell'arte performances were based were one
source for opera libretti. Jacopo Angello Nelli (1673-1767) wrote a play entitled La
Serva Padrona, based on Commedia dell'arte traditions. The play was published in
1731. Gennaro Antonio Federico (1726-1743) wrote a libretto for a staged musical work
16 Seeger (1958) stated that the humanist milieu in which seconda pratica arose was a general
Renaissance view that present efforts could equal and perhaps surpass classical achievements (cited in
Haynes, 2007).
17 The word "libretto" has been adopted into English. It comes from the Italian word meaning a small
book.
Page 8 of 125
based on Nelli's play.
Giovanni Battista Pergolesi (1710-1736) set Federico's libretto: La Serva
Padrona as two intermezzi18 to be performed between acts of his opera seria: Il
Prigonier Superbo. The first performance was in 1733 at the San Bartolomeo theatre in
Naples. Forty-eight years later in 1781 Giovanni Paisiello (1740-1816) set Federico's
libretto as two intermezzi with the same title: La Serva Padrona. At the time he was
employed in Saint Petersburg by Queen Catherine the Great as the musical director of a
small Italian opera company within her court. The work was first performed before a
court audience in 1781.
Pergolesi's La Serva Padrona enjoyed spectacular success throughout
Europe in the eighteenth century. In the first ten years after its premiere there were at
least twenty-four new productions at places that included Rome, Spoleto, Parma, Milan,
Fermo, Graz, Lucca, Venice, Munich, Dresden, Modena, Siena and Hamburg (Hucke
and Monson, 2007). When the work was presented in Paris in 1752 by a troupe of
travelling Italian singers, it polarised the audience. The style was thought by some to be
inferior to French tragédie lyrique genre. The resultant public war of words, referred to
as the querelle des bouffons, sowed the seed for development of a new French genre -
opéra comique - based on the Italian comic style. The work therefore had a profound
and long-lasting impact on French opera.
It is possible to advance a number of reasons for the success of Pergolesi's
La Serva Padrona. These could fall into the categories of characteristics of the music
and historical factors. Grout and Palisca (2001, p. 425) suggest that on the basis of the
writings of prominent critics of the period, audiences in the mid- and later eighteenth
century wanted music to be "natural". This is defined as "free of needless technical
complications and capable of immediately pleasing any sensitive listener". This attribute
of naturalness is in contrast to the perception of harmonic complexity, virtuosity, and
abstract grandeur of much of seventeenth- and early eighteenth-century music. Grout
and Palisca (ibid) maintain that the new "natural" style was typified by Pergolesi's La
Serva Padrona. Authors including Lazarevich (1971) and Troy (1979) suggest that the
18 During the second half of the seventeenth century, humorous elements were gradually removed from
opere serie and were placed exclusively in light-hearted interludes between the acts of the serious
works. These interludes eventually became known as intermezzi.
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work is the epitome of the Neapolitan Intermezzo - a music comedy genre characterised
by characters drawn from everyday life, accessible plots based on the Commedia
dell'arte and a freer, simpler musical style which facilitated the dramatic presentation of
comedy. Pergolesi's work had a number of stylistic features such as continuance of the
dramatic action in arias and duets, that anticipated those of the opera buffa genre.
Historical reasons for the work's success included the widespread dissemination of
intermezzi from Italy throughout Europe in the early eighteenth century, owing to
travelling troupes of Italian singers.
Paisiello clearly revered Pergolesi's work and had knowledge of its
widespread success. Scoccimarro (2010) refers to the following text from a letter to
Queen Catherine II, written in Paisiello's hand. It is included in the manuscript of his La
Serva Padrona held in the Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Musiksammlung in
Vienna:
L´intermezzo intitolato La Serva Padrona, che ho l´onore di presentare a vostra Maestà
Imperiale, è stato messo in musica più di 36 (o 40) anni fa dal famoso Pergolesi. La reputazione
di cui la musica di questo maestro gode in tutta Europa è la ragione per cui nessuno fino ad oggi
ne abbia composto di nuova sulle stesse parole, sia per rispetto per la memoria, sia per evitare il
pericolo del confronto, o per non incorrere nell´accusa di temerarietà da parte del pubblico.
[The intermezzo entitled La Serva Padrona, which I have the honour to present to your Imperial
Majesty, was set to music more than 36 (or 40) years ago by the famous Pergolesi. The
reputation which this maestro's music enjoys throughout Europe is the reason why no one until
today has composed a new work using the same text, be this out of respect for his memory, or to
avoid the risk of comparison, or so as not to incur the public's accusation of foolhardiness.]19
The letter suggests that Paisiello was well acquainted with Pergolesi's work. It might
also be inferred that he was aware of the risk of his own work being negatively
compared, but that he had enough confidence in its quality to take this risk.
Acknowledging the Florentine Camerata's ethos of an elaboration of the
drama entirely through music, it is pertinent to consider how drama, as defined, is
manifest. For the purposes of this study, the elements comprising the manifestation of
19 Two other Italian composers had set Federico's libretto: Girolamo Abos (1715-1760) and Pietro
Alessandro Guglielmi (1728-1804). These works, for which there are no surviving manuscripts or
editions, were first performed in Naples in 1744 and 1780 respectively. Paisiello appears to be
unaware of them.
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drama are: impulse, internal psychological and emotional phenomena in the characters,
and the human and societal context in which the ritual of performance occurs. "Impulse"
includes the unfolding, pacing, increase and decrease of tension and sense of forward
movement of the action, both physical and psychological. "Human and societal context"
refers to behaviours that were expected and acceptable within the social milieu of the
period, and the "ritual of performance" refers not only to what is being done in the
performance, but also to what its effect is on the audience. The latter consideration
encompasses the likely responses of the intended audience for the performance, and the
appropriate manner in which to communicate with such an audience.
Referring to Mozart's Le Nozze di Figaro, Kerman (1956, p.108) maintains
that the drama in the work is the creation of the composer, rather than the playwright or
the librettist.20 He makes a point which is pertinent to this study, namely that the
composer can create drama that the librettist neither intended nor expected. Tomlinson
(1982), suggests that when composers of vocal music use a text written by another, they
have a certain autonomy in how they express their message, although the message is not
entirely their own. He states that the composer "welcomes to his work a second, distinct
language, one which corresponds to his own at most only partially in syntax and
significance". Downes (1961) states that throughout the eighteenth century many
compositional devices were used in recitative to create or modify the drama in the text.
In the context of this study, the "message" that the composers are aiming to express
refers to selected manifestations of drama within recitatives.
The existence of two settings of the same libretto by two eighteenth-century
Italian composers - Giovanni Battista Pergolesi and Giovanni Paisiello - raises a number
of questions. (For example: How did each composer employ recitative to maintain a
nexus between musical continuity and the evolution of the drama? Did the composers
create different dramatic works as a result of the way in which they superimposed music
on the text?) Through a comparative analysis of the compositional devices in recitative
in the scores, this study will address the question: Do settings by different composers of
the same text portray distinct characters and emotional messages? It should be stated at
the outset that the comparative analysis will focus on a detailed examination of how the
20 Lorenzo da Ponte (1749-1838) wrote the libretto, based on a play by Pierre Augustin Caron de
Beaumarchais (1732-1799).
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composers have created drama in the written scores of recitative. However, the study
will take into account the likely stylistic differences between the composers' works,
based on the historical context, and how these may impact on the perceptions of the
creation of drama. Attention will also be given to the possible influences of performance
practice on the creation of drama.
The Development of Recitative
Recitative represents a manifestation of the Florentine Camerata's ideal of a
dramma tutto per musica. Arising from the Camerata's ideal, recitative started as a
novel way of expressing the drama in a text through the superimposition of music. In
the foreword to his opera Euridice, Jacopo Peri (1651-1633) stated that in his judgment
the ancient Greeks and Romans used in their sung tragedies "a harmony surpassing that
of ordinary speech but falling so far below the melody of song as to take an
intermediate form" (Peri, 1601). He indicated that the structure of his stile
rappresentativo involved using the bass to indicate harmonies which corresponded with
consonant notes on significant words in the text.21 Intermediate between these
consonances, he allowed words to be placed on dissonant notes.
Claudio Monteverdi developed Peri's concept considerably. He pioneered
the use of many compositional devices which were to become standard components of
composers' armamentarium for recitative setting. Tomlinson (1981 and 1982) provides
detailed analyses of compositional devices in the settings of verse in a selection of
Monteverdi's works. He refers to Monteverdi's use of "madrigalisms", meaning
rhythmic and melodic compositional devices that depict particularly vivid words and
images. For example, in the Lamento from his 1608 opera Arianna, Monteverdi used
chromaticism, tritone and seventh leaps and melodic contours to convey the character's
distraught emotions.
During the seventeenth century, opera increased in importance as a musical
genre. Hausswald (1974, p.18) maintains that the most important unifying element in
music in this period was the basso continuo, also termed figured bass. Referring to the
six continuo madrigals in Monteverdi's Book V, Buelow (2004) suggests that the use of
21 Stile rappresentativo is equivalent to the later term stile recitativo.
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basso continuo allowed the composer to fundamentally change his style.
It [basso continuo] freed him in terms of harmonic texture and enabled him to write long,
lyrically phrased melodic lines for one or more voices that need not be supported harmonically
through imitation or part writing in other voices (Buelow 2004, p. 67).
An advantage of this for Monteverdi's work was that continuo support of a solo voice
facilitated the nexus between music and dramatic action. It allowed the creation of
distinct characters and the simulation of characters responding to each other in a
rhetorical manner.
Hausswald (1974, p. 18) observes that the new style that developed after
1600 "consisted of the speech melody of the voice part, now subject to the rhetorical
theory of affections, and the bass part, which in the light of the growing consciousness
of harmony became thickened into chords, signified by figured bass". Polyphony was
replaced by melody, bass line and figured bass inner parts. Referring to stile recitativo
in early forms of comic opera, Hausswald states: "figured bass provided a concise
support for the quick-moving and gossipy dialogues which ... followed each other in
rapid succession"(ibid). He maintains that by the eighteenth century, the fusion of
speech-rhythm, rhetorical theory of affections and figured bass had become established
bases of music composition.
The major development of recitative occurred during the seventeenth
century (Glixon 1985, p.115). Gradually, recitative became the vehicle for plot
development, individual character revelation, and dialogue between characters. Arias
functioned in the main as a pause in the psychological and physical action, to amplify
and elaborate issues that had arisen in the recitative. Glixon posits that composers
increasingly used a stock armamentarium of compositional devices to express situations
and themes in the libretto.
Troy (1979, p. 27) suggests that between 1680 and 1700 a change occurred
in the recitative style of serious operas. The recitatives became more 'realistic', that is,
closer to animated conversation. They used less complicated rhythms, a slower
harmonic rhythm, and more repeated notes. The vocal line was set syllabically, in
quavers for the most part, moving mainly in a stepwise fashion. He notes that the style
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of the scene buffe recitatives of this period was similar.22 He posits that a comprehensive
study of recitatives in scene buffe from this period might show that the traditional lively
exchanges and animated dialogue of their comic characters led to the development of
more realistic declamation in recitativo semplice.
Buelow (2004, p. 461) counters Troy's statement to some extent. He
observes that towards the end of the seventeenth century changes in Venetian opera
were the result of opening the theatres up to a broader cross section of the populace. As
a result of the popularisation of opera among social classes who had not been part of the
traditional opera audience, there was a demand for virtuosic performance by singers in
the arias, as well as increasingly theatrical presentation involving, for example, complex
mechanical staging devices and extravagant costumes. Pauly (1948, p. 225) states that
the ordinary Venetian citizens who watched performances from the floor of the house
tended to be noisy and outspoken in their opinions of what was happening on the stage,
regarding the latter as "just another carnival entertainment".
Benedetto Marcello's literary work Il Teatro alla Moda, (reproduced in two
parts in The Musical Quarterly in 1948), provides a cynical account of Italian opera,
especially in Venice, in the early eighteenth century.23 The subtitle of the work is:
A sure and easy method to compose well and to produce Italian operas in the modern fashion.
Containing useful and necessary instructions for librettists, composers, for singers of either sex,
for impresarios, orchestra musicians, theatrical engineers, and painters of scenery, for those
playing comic parts, for theater tailors, pages, extras, prompters, copyists, for patrons and
mothers of female singers [virtuose], and for other persons connected with the theater (Pauly
1948 Part I, p. 371).
Some salient quotes from the work will serve to illustrate the decadent state of opera at
the time. Instructions for the librettist:
He should write the whole opera without any preconceived plan but rather proceed verse by
verse. For if the audience never understands the plot their attentiveness to the very end of the
opera will be ensured (ibid p. 373).
22 Scene buffe were comic scenes performed betwen the acts of serious operas. Initially they contained
minor characters from the parent opera, who acted out comic subplots.
23 The work was first published as a small pamphlet in Venice in about 1720. From 1733 onwards, there
were several subsequent editions and translations. Reference in this study is to the reproduction
published in 1948 in The Musical Quarterly, translated and edited by R. G. Pauly.
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The aria must in no way be related to the preceding recitative but it should be full of such things
as sweet little butterflies, bouquets, nightingales, quails, little boats, little huts, jasmine, violets,
copper basins, little pots, tigers, lions, whales, crabs, turkeys, cold capon, etc (ibid, p. 377).
Instructions for composers:
Every modern composer should drop an occasional remark that he wites in a rather popular style
and violates the rules frequently only in order to satisfy his audience. He will thus blame the
taste of the listeners who, it is true, sometimes like bad music because that is what is performed
and because they are not given a taste of better compositions (ibid, p. 384).
Instructions for singers:
To become a virtuoso a singer need not be able to read or write, or to pronounce correctly vowels
and diphthongs, nor does he have to understand the text. He must be an expert, however, at
disregarding sense and at mixing up letters and syllables in order to show off flashy passages,
trills, appoggiaturas, endless cadenzas, etc (ibid, p. 388).
The modern Virtuosa should sing cadenzas that last for an hour each, and stop frequently to take
a breath. She should always try to sing the highest notes, which are beyond her range, and during
every trill she must turn and twist her neck (ibid, p. 399).
Instructions for impresarios:
He will quietly put up with any impertinences of the virtuosi, remembering that in their
capacities as princes, kings, and emperors they have great authority and dignity and could easily
take revenge on him by singing out of tune or leaving out arias (Pauly 1948 Part II, p. 87).
Some conclusions which could be drawn from the foregoing quotes include
that the unruly and often inattentive audiences had enormous power in determining the
form, structure and performance practice of opera. As a result of the focus on the
virtuosic performance of arias, there developed increasing separation between recitative
and aria. This separation was one reason for the disjunct between dramatic action and
musical continuity which came to be deplored during the early eighteenth century.
Opera productions had became focussed on satisfying the audiences' desire for sensation
and gaudiness sacrificing, as a result, any concern for maintaining a synergetic
relationship between music and dramatic continuity.
Kerman (1956, p.46) suggests: "Between the time of Monteverdi and that of
Gluck, recitative erupted and decayed, while the aria developed, over-developed, and
finally realized itself." Kerman describes Christoph Willibald Gluck (1714-1787) as a
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product of the large Italian tradition of opera seria. This genre flourished in Naples,
Venice, Vienna and London from the early eighteenth century to about the year 1770.
Some of its best known earlier composers are Alessandro Scarlatti (1660-1725), Johann
Adolf Hasse (1699-1783), and George Frideric Handel (1685-1759). Gluck sought to
reform what he saw as the unnatural excesses of opera seria. These excesses included
da capo arias whose main function was to allow the singers to show off their virtuosity,
and the stultifying contrast between arias and long tracts of formulaic recitative.
Referring to earlier opere serie, Kerman (1956, p. 62) states:
The composers simply concentrated their attention on a series of "aria situations"; they were not
concerned with the necessary intricacy of the plot, for all the details were handled by means of
discussions, destined to be set in neutral, devitalised, secco recitative. No longer the emotional
carrier, recitative became simply a conventional manner of speech.
Against this background, Gluck strove to return opera to its function of
serving the poetry through continuous musical expression of its emotions and situations.
Kerman suggests that Gluck incorporated recitative into the dramatic impetus of arias
and ensembles. This is exemplified in Orfeo's strophic aria Chiamo il mio ben, in which
each verse is prededed by an expressive recitativo accompagnato. Kerman (1956, p. 71)
suggests that Gluck's work represents one successful solution to the central problem of
opera dramaturgy, namely the synergetic relationship between dramatic action and
musical continuity. A second solution, occurring contemporaneously in the eighteenth
century, occurred in the development of independent intermezzi and opera buffa.24
Downes (1961) describes some differences in style in recitativo semplice of
late Baroque opere serie compared with that of early Classic period works.25 He
provides examples from relevant scores of several of the compositional devices used in
these opere serie. A more vivid emotional content was created through melismatic
emphasis and the use of a larger variety of harmonies to depict strong emotion. The
latter practice changed in general towards the use of more straightforward harmonic
progressions in the Classic period. Downes is of the opinion that this change was not an
indication of composers' laziness or that recitative was of less importance and therefore
24 Gradually scene buffe characters became unrelated to the parent serious opera. The interludes were
then known as intermezzi. A further development was that intermezzi were performed independently.
25 For the purposes of this study, the time period for this comparison is from about 1730 to 1750.
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required less complexity. Rather, he suggests, it was a matter of the aesthetic preference
of the period (ibid, p. 68). He further states that the note lengths are longer in the scores
of opere serie and that there is more variation in rhythm and a greater use of dotted
rhythms. A further stylistic feature of opera seria recitative was the simultaneous
performance by two or more characters of identical text with identical rhythm. Downes
surmises that in general recitativo semplice in early Classical operatic works was closer
to natural speech and less stylized. In this way, it paralleled the 'naturalness' of recitative
in intermezzi and opere buffe, which was noted above.
Concepts of Recitative in Opera
Kerman (1956, p. 8) makes a comparison between poetic drama and
dramma per musica. He notes: "in each form, drama is articulated on its most serious
level by an imaginative medium, poetry in the one case, music in the other". He
maintains: "The function of dramatic poetry is to supply certain kinds of meaning to the
drama, meanings that enrich immeasurably, and enrich dramatically, and that cannot be
presented in any other way". Referring to the placement of persons in a play into
physical and psychological relationships, he notes: "The particular aspect or weight of
such relationships, of events and episodes, is determined by the quality of the verse; and
in the largest sense the dramatic form is articulated by the poetry in conjunction with the
plot structure". He states that the same can be said of music. Music, like poetry becomes
"a vital element of the action". As noted earlier, he puts forward that the central problem
of opera dramaturgy is how the synergetic relationship between dramatic action and
musical continuity is achieved. As background to this study, it is relevant to consider the
contribution of recitative to this relationship.
The 1986 New Harvard Dictionary of Music entry on 'Recitative' begins:
Recitative [Fr. recitative; Ger. Rezitativ; It. Sp. recitativo]: A style of text setting that imitates
and emphasizes the natural inflections, rhythms, and syntax of speech. Such a setting avoids
extremes of pitch and intensity and repetition of words, allowing the music to be primarily a
vehicle for the words. The term recitative is used most often in connection with dramatic music
—opera, oratorio, and cantata but this type of text setting is far more widespread historically and
geographically than are these genres.
Recitative became a particular concern of composers from the beginning of the 17th century
Page 17 of 125
onward [see also Monody, Baroque]. Peri, Caccini, Cavalieri, Gagliano and Monteverdi all
proclaimed a new style of declamation that is variously referred to as stile rappresentativo and
stile recitativo. In the first half of the 17th century, recitative was valued for its expressivity in
the sense that the music supported and emphasised the text rather than obscuring it.
After a brief description of the incorporation of the recitative style into
German, French and English music of the seventeenth century, the entry goes on to say:
By the end of the 17th century in Italy, perhaps in response to longer libretti with more involved
and complicated plots, a simpler and more perfunctory style of setting text evolved, recitativo
semplice. The sparse texture and slow harmonic rhythm of the accompaniment, played by
continuo instruments only allowed for the clear and rapid presentation of a large amount of text.
Two functions of recitative at this time may be distinguished: dramatic and musical. The
dramatic function was expository or narrative, advancing the action. The musical function was
one of modulation, creating a transition between one aria or ensemble and the next [see Aria].
The term recitativo secco, now used interchangeably with recitativo semplice, came into use in
the 19th century, after that style of recitative was no longer being composed.
By contrast, the entry in Grove Music Online (Monson et al, accessed 2012)
provides a more comprehensive description, refuting a number of the assertions in the
Harvard Dictionary entry. It refers to typical traits of early recitative which had been
influenced by the Florentine Camerata's ideals. These included a lack of repetition of
text, a correspondence of the rate of harmonic change with the affect of the text, an
overall slow harmonic rhythm over a fairly static bass line (giving an effect of
declamatory freedom), dramatic accents being reinforced by harmonic change, and
particularly affective phrases or words being highlighted by strong dissonance.
The Harvard Dictionary description of the change from expressive text
setting, exemplified by Monteverdi, to what it describes as "the perfunctory style of
recitativo semplice" by the end of the seventeenth century seems an inaccurate
oversimplification. The Grove Music Online entry suggests that by the late seventeenth
century recitative involved an armamentarium of compositional conventions that were
more-or-less routinely applied. Although there were certainly critics of recitative of this
period, such as Ludovico Antonio Muratori, the Grove entry notes that within these
compositional conventions a number of composers were able to closely tailor recitative
to create their interpretation of the drama. It further states that by the eighteenth century
recitative had become the principal vehicle for both dialogue and dramatic action in
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opera. The Harvard Dictionary's statements that the style was "perfunctory" and that it
avoided repetition and extreme melodic leaps are inaccurate generalisations, as will be
shown in the recitative excerpts used in this study. Furthermore, limitation of the
musical function of recitative to a bridge between the keys of arias seems an unfair
denigration of its importance.
Glixon's thesis on recitative in seventeenth-century Venetian opera also
refutes a number of the statements in the Harvard Dictionary entry. She notes that
extreme changes in direction in terms of melody, harmony and rhythm were allowable.
She states:
A composer could emphasize a word or idea through harmonic color, pitch selection, rhythmic
profile or duration, melismatic treatment, isolation, text repetition, or the contour of the basso
continuo (Glixon 1985, p. 98).
Such compositional devices, she notes, could also signal changes in mood,
attitude, intention in characters or indicate an aside in the text. In practise,
compositional devices were often used simultaneously. Kerman (1956) concurs with
these concepts. Comparing a play to an opera, he asserts that the characters in a play
never quite stop thinking, whereas those in an opera can give themselves over to
sensibility. He notes: "Music can be immediate and simple in the presentation of
emotional states or shades" (ibid p. 13).
The Grove Music Online entry distinguishes two types of recitative:
recitativo semplice and recitativo accompagnato (also known as stromentato or
obbligato). It cites John Brown's (1789) suggestion that eighteenth-century recitative
could be classified into two types depending not so much on how it was accompanied as
on its affective content: texts "of passion and sentiment, or such as are not so". In a
similar vein, Monelle (1978, pp. 248-250) describes two basic styles of recitative
writing: "historical" and "pathetic". These were associated with certain types of action
and emotion. Historical recitative was used for matter-of-fact narrative and dialogue
and for expression of noble and joyful sentiments. Pathetic recitative was used for
setting text involving, for example, romantic love or tenderness between parents and
children. He indicates that there is considerable overlap between these styles, and that
they often occur in close succession.
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Buelow (2004, p.484) disputes the Harvard Dictionary's suggestion that the
terms recitativo secco and recitativo semplice may be used interchangeably. Referring to
the recitative in late seventeenth-century Venetian operas and that in Handel's London
operas, he suggests the the term secco (dry) is misleading. While the accompainment
consists of continuo instruments only, the text settings are highly expressive, through
"means of harmonic progression, dissonance colourings, strong melodic design relying
on rhetorically expressive motives, leaps, sequential patterns, and rhythmic pacing".
Throughout this study, the term recitativo semplice will be used for recitative
accompanied only by continuo instruments.
There is a considerable body of literature on the subject of recitative in the
seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Corri (c. 1779) in his "Explanation of the Nature
and Design of the Following Work", refers to recitative as "..in itself, beyond a doubt,
the highest species of vocal music".
Downes (1961) presents a brief commentary on the opinions of various
writers from the eighteenth to twentieth centuries on the quality and value of recitativo
semplice. He notes that common stereotypes of the form include that it was shallow,
careless, superficial, unmusical, tedious, and expressionless. He refutes this, providing
analyses of compositional devices in opere serie. Lazarevich (1971) provides analyses
of the rhythmic, harmonic and melodic characteristics of the Neapolitan style, including
recitative settings of a number of early eighteenth-century Neapolitan composers. These
include Alessandro Scarlatti, Johann Hasse and Pergolesi.
Monelle (1978, p. 274) suggests that Baroque period Italian composers had
a "regard for dramaturgy: dramatic rhythm, characterization, variety of diction and
expression within an overall plan". He provides a detailed analysis of the recitative in
Hasse's opera seria: Il Re Pastore. As noted above, he describes two basic styles of
recitative writing: "historical" and "pathetic", which were associated with certain types
of action and emotion. In terms of musical structure historical recitative was
predominantly major and diatonic, with no more dissonance than the dominant 7th.
Pathetic recitative, by contrast, was characterised by diminished 7ths both in melody
and harmony. It was largely in minor keys, used dissonant intervals including
diminished and augmented 4ths in melody and bass, and was often chromatic. These
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concepts are a useful springboard for more detailed analysis of the compositional
devices used in recitative settings.
Troy (1979) maintains that recitativo semplice is an ideal vehicle for
comedy because of the latter's special requirements. These include rapid dialogue,
asides, quick changes of mood. Recitativo semplice, with its freedom for declamation
with minimal musical support is ideal to achieve these requirements. He suggests that
an indication of its particular utility in comedy is that Italian composers continued to
use it in comic works long after they had stopped using it in serious works. He cites
Gaetano Donizetti (1797-1848) as an example. Donizetti was still using recitativo
semplice in opera buffa in 1835 (Il campanello di notte), by which time he was not
using it in serious works such as Lucrezia Borgia (1833) (Troy 1979, p. 104).
Figure 1.1 provides an example of the use of recitativo semplice to deliver a
comic message, in this case through the figured bass notation. The excerpt is from the
first recitative of the second part of Hasse's 1726 intermezzo: Larinda e Vanesio. The
semiquaver arpeggios in the continuo bass line are musical metaphors for Larinda's brio
brillante (sparkling spirit) and ciglio lampeggiante (flashing eyelashes). Troy (1979, pp.
107-8) observes that this practice of notating musical figures in the bass line with the
aim of illustrating the meaning of the text was a distinguishing feature of the continuo
notation for recitativo semplice in intermezzi as compared to that in opere serie.
Figure 1.1
Donington (1981, p.42) maintains that a novel capability of monody as used
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in recitative is that its underlying harmony can define, modify and sharpen the
manifestations of drama inferred from the text. Modulation, he states, was necessary to
express musically the changes in and development of emotion and intent within
characters that a continuously unfolding drama requires.
Monson (1983) analysed the recitatives in several opere serie of Pergolesi
and those of a number of his contemporaries. He states:
The peculiarities of a composer’s interpretation of the dramatic impact of a text most often
resides in brief, concise expressive effects, such as large intervals, unexpected modulations,
dramatic pauses indicated by rests, an appoggiatura, or any other short expressive device
appropriate to the occcasion (Monson 1983, p.189).
His analysis includes the harmonic patterns in the recitatives, and the key relationships
between the recitatives and the arias. He provides a detailed commentary on interval
frequency and melody used in the recitatives. He also provides detailed analyses of the
harmonic progressions in the recitatives, indicating devices used to underline dramatic
effect. He indicates that the harmonic patterns in the recitativo semplice of Pergolesi's
opere serie showed "a definite plan and coherence, with a subtle manipulation to
express the text" (ibid, p. 145-6). He notes that almost all the recitatives in Pergolesi's
operas can be analysed with reference to three compositional devices: secondary
dominant chains, I-IV-V-I cadences,26 and relative major and minor juxtaposition (ibid,
p. 150). An example of a device he uses to stress meaning in the text or for dramatic
effect is interruption of a cadential figure. Monson lists five types of interruption. These
will be discussed further in chapter two with regard to the cadenza d'inganno. In
relation to the cadential figure I-IV-V-I in the key of C major, the types of interruption
are:
1. C-F-G-D
2. C-F-G-E
3. C-F-G-Ab
4. C-F-G-F
5. C-F-G-Am
26 Monson refers to a harmonic chains with a root progressions by 5ths as a “secondary dominant chain”.
He notes that almost all the recitatives end with a I-IV-V-I cadence (Monson 1983, p. 146-7).
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Glixon's PhD thesis (1985) gives a very detailed analysis of the dramatic
function of recitative in seventeenth-century Venetian opera during a 20-year period.
She provides a wealth of information on the musical structural devices which
composers employed for dramatic effects during that period. She posits that in contrast
to the structured and closed form of aria, the open form and lack of constraints
characteristic of recitative allowed great scope for highlighting the dramatic possibilities
of components of the libretto, such as individual words, phrases, sentences (Glixon
1985, p. 97) . The reduced texture27 of recitative, especially recitativo semplice, confers
on it a quick responsiveness to dramatic aspects of the text. She states:
Because recitative is responsive to the text word by word as well as at a larger syntactic level, the
composer had the freedom, at any point, to veer away from the prevailing logic in order to point
up an emotional change in the libretto or merely to draw attention to a particular word.
She maintains that during the seventeenth century, the "characteristic recitative idiom"
emerged in Venice as well as in other Italian centres (ibid, p. 115). She suggests that by
the end of the century recitative had become "a standard musical language that would
change little over the next century" (ibid, p. 272).
De'Ath (2009) describes a method for setting into music the rhythm of
spoken Italian. It is based on the presence of "rhythmic units" and "sense groups" in the
language. His method takes into account various features of the language, such as
stress-timed rather than syllable-timed rhythm, placement of primary and secondary
stresses on specific positions within the bar, the tendency of the spoken language to fall
into duple rhythm and the variable placement of secondary stresses depending on
context. Using his method De'Ath analyses excerpts of recitative settings by Wolfgang
Amadeus Mozart and Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach from an identical libretto. He
illustrates how the composers have implied different intent and emotion in the
characters purely through the rhythmic setting of the text. The following two paragraphs
summarise how De'Ath's method will be used for the purposes of this study.
Spoken Italian can be said to have three types of stress: strong, secondary
and weak (Figure 1.2). Syllables with strong stresses are separated by no more than
27 'Reduced texture' in the context of recitativo semplice refers to the focus in composition and notation
on the synchronous relationship between the bass and melody lines. Skilled continuo players could
add inner parts at their discretion, without interrupting the dramatic flow of the text.
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three weakly stressed syllables. However, if there are more than three weakly stressed
syllables between strong stresses, a secondary stress occurs. A "rhythmic unit" contains
one strong stress which falls on the penultimate syllable. "Sense groups" contain words
that belong together grammatically, for example, an adverbial clause. Sense groups
contain as many rhythmic units as there are strong stresses. Figure 1.3 shows an excerpt
from the libretto of La Serva Padrona divided into rhythmic units and sense groups. The
phrase Gran fatto! is the first sense group. The following phrase: Io m'ho cresciuta
questa serva picina is the second sense group. Rhythmic units are delineated by fine
white vertical lines.
Figure 1.2 Types of stress in spoken Italian
Figure 1.3 Rhythmic Units and Sense Groups
During the eighteenth century, the dynamic of a note appears to have been
determined in part by its metrical position in the bar. This is termed 'Metrical
Accentuation'. Drawing on De'Ath's work, the relative stresses within a 4/4 bar depend
on the positions of the crotchet beats and on subdivisions within these beats. It should
be noted that, for the purposes of this study, these relative stresses refer to the notation
of scores, rather than to the placing of stresses used in the practice of performance.
Table 1.1 shows a hierarchy in descending order of Metrical Accentuation. In the study,
I will analyse how the two composers have used placement of strongly stressed
syllables in various metrical positions to indicate relative emphasis on particular words.
I will also make use of the "sense group" concept with regard to the composers'
continuity or fragmentation of phrases for possible dramatic purposes.
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A Distinction between the Notation and Performance Practice of Recitative
The creation of drama through recitativo semplice could be considered to
involve four components - the inanimate artefacts of text and written music and the
living, performance elements of singers and continuo players. Referring to opere serie
of the early eighteenth century, Downes (1961) maintains that we cannot be sure how
recitativo semplice sounded because our knowledge of performance practice is limited.
He notes that we do know that singers were expected to take considerable liberties with
both rhythms and pitches.
There is a wealth of literature on Baroque and Classic period opera
performance practice. Treatises such as those of Pier Francesco Tosi (1743) and
Domenico Corri (c. 1779) describe how recitative of the period should be sung and how
the continuo should be played. They provide advice on performance over and above
what is in the written scores. They include such matters as acceptable and advisable
vocal practice in variations in melody, ornamentation and appoggiaturas. Downes
(1961, p. 56) notes that performance parameters that are not usually written in the
scores, such as appoggiaturas, grace notes, sudden pauses, free rhythm and tempo, and
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Metrical
Accentuation value
Crotchet beat 1 1
Crotchet beat 3 2
Crotchet beats 2, 4 3
Quavers between crotchets 4
Semiquavers between quavers 5
Table 1.1: Hierarchy of Metrical Accentuation in a 4/4 bar
variations in volume can produce strong emotional effects.
The performance practice for cadences in recitativo semplice in the
eighteenth century requires some consideration, as it may be relevant to the interaction
between text and music in the creation of drama in the works being compared in this
study. Glixon (1985, p. 92) states that the notated delayed cadence - referring to the
continuo cadence being notated so as to be played after the vocal cadence - is seen
infrequently in manuscripts of Venetian opera of the early seventeenth century. When
used, it was for an intended dramatic effect: either a dying character or one in a strong
emotional state such as anguish or anger. The implication is that in this period the
delayed cadence was an intentional compositional device in recitative, to be performed
as notated for dramatic emphasis. However, in the eighteenth century cadences appear
to have been used in recitative in a different way.
Hansell (1968) suggests that in the eighteenth century the performance of
perfect cadences at the end of recitatives may have been different in the first half of the
century from that in the second half. Referring to the prosody of the Italian language, he
notes that the text at cadence points in recitative usually ends with an accented syllable
followed by a vowel. Standard performance practice for the singer was to use an
appoggiatura, which could move in one of two directions: either descending by a step to
the tonic or descending from the tonic by a perfect fourth to the fifth degree of the scale.
Performance practice in the second half of the century was to execute a 'delayed
cadence' - that is, to play both the dominant and the tonic chords after the final note in
the vocal line, even if the notation indicated that the penultimate note in the vocal line
should be simultaneous with the penultimate chord in the continuo.
However, drawing on the treatises of Francesco Gasparini28 and Pier
Francesco Tosi (1743), Hansell infers that in the first half of the century, the practice
would have been for the harpsichordist to play the chords in the timing as written. The
vocal appoggiatura note would be played in the continuo as an acciaccatura or crushed
note. The resultant dissonance was considered acceptable, or even admired at the time.
It may have augmented the affective meaning of the text. It was also considered
consistent with Italian prosody, the 'feminine' ending of the text word being imitated by
28 Gasparini's treatise entitled: L'Armonico pratico al cimbolo was first published in Venice in 1708.
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the continuo cadence. In the latter, the penultimate chord received the stronger metrical
emphasis. Hansell notes that Tosi's term for this practice was cadenza tronca, meaning
'truncated cadence'.
Later editions of early eighteenth-century opere serie and intermezzi
sometimes indicate that cadences in recitative are to be played in a delayed fashion,
regardless of how they are notated in original manuscripts. An example is Bettarini's
1974 edition of Hasse's Intermezzo in Tre Parti: Larinda e Vanesio. The manuscript on
which the edition was based clearly shows the penultimate bass note of cadences in the
recitative simultaneous with the penultimate note in the vocal line. Bettarini however,
places a bracket before the penultimate bass note and states in a footnote: Gli accordi
vanno eseguiti dopo la parola (the chords are performed after the word). Hansell
suggests that this is an incorrect extrapolation of late eighteenth-century practice to
works from early in the century.
The performance practice of cadences in recitativo semplice may have
relevance to Pergolesi's setting of La Serva Padrona. Monson (1983, p. 272) describes
several examples from Pergolesi's opere serie where the composer wrote out some of
the cadences in the delayed manner and others in the tronca manner. However, Monson
suggests that where the vocal and continuo cadences were notated simultaneously,
performers were at liberty to execute them with the continuo cadence delayed for
dramatic effect (ibid, p. 135). Nevertheless, it might be inferred that where Pergolesi
notated a cadenza tronca, he intended it to be performed in this way. I will discuss
instances where a cadenza tronca could be used to highlight dramatic aspects of the text
in Figures 2.3 and 2.19 of the study.
Troy (1979) discusses the comic style of intermezzi, termed the buffo style.
This style combines concepts of performance practice and music notation. He describes
the buffo vocal style as "comic realism". Audiences of the period commented that the
singers would laugh, howl, sigh, cough, and imitate physiological phenomena such as
heartbeats or inanimate object sounds like whip cracks. He is of the opinion that:
"Doubtless much of the realism that eighteenth-century commentators found so
delightful (or objectionable) resulted from the singers' performance practices." He
further notes that "Directions in libretti occasionally specify that lines of recitative were
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to be delivered ridendo ("laughing"), con ira ("angrily"), sospirando ("sighing"),
piangendo ("weeping"), smaniando ("raving"), and the like" (Troy 1979, p. 92).
Additional directions included variation in voice timbre including humming and
falsetto. Troy goes on to say: "Even a casual inspection of intermezzo scores however,
reveals that a good deal of 'realistic' humour is actually written into the music" (ibid,
p.92). Vocal representations of sobbing, sighing, laughing, stuttering and yawning were
also written into the notation. Troy's comments reinforce a central tenet of this study,
namely that it is valid to examine the creation of drama which is immanent in the
written music as a separate issue from how drama is created in performance.
A second element of the buffo style was constant repetition - which could be
of single words, phrases, or entire sentences. As well as text repetition, there could be
repetition of musical phrases, which may lead to motivic development. Repetition of
words and phrases was a common device in recitativo semplice, where it was used for
emphasis or comic effect. The device also added 'naturalness' to the sung dialogue.
Parody, especially of contemporary opere serie, was a third element of the
buffo style. Troy notes that this applied in particular to aspects of arias, such as the
sometimes tedious da capo repetition and the use of coloratura passages for reasons of
pretentious ornament rather than for dramatic purposes. Another common feature of the
buffo style was juxtaposition of extremely varied tempi and music styles. This applied
to arias and duets. Troy (ibid, p. 100) concludes that this attribute resulted from a
conscious attempt by composers to reflect changing moods in the text. Clearly, their
intent was to progress the drama during the pieces, in contrast to the generally static
dramatic effect of the da capo pieces of opere serie.
Nuti (2007, p.15) discusses the flexibility inherent in basso continuo
notation and the resultant possibilities for the continuo player to respond
sympathetically during performance to the emotional content of the text being sung.
Referring to the Florentine Camerata's role in fostering the development of basso
continuo, she suggests:
For the success of the stile rappresentativo a means of accompaniment that freed the singer
completely to conjoin words and music was necessary. When reading from basso continuo the
accompanist can support the voice and change the texture and, consequently, the volume
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acording to the affetti required by the words.
The Neapolitan Intermezzo and Opera Buffa
Whereas the operatic tastes of the seventeenth century had been dictated by the Venetian school
of composition, in the next century Naples became the centre for operatic developments
(Lazarevich 1971, p. 297).
Two comic musical forms developed primarily in Naples during the eighteenth century.
These were the intermezzo and opera buffa. Early in the century, a number of composers
known primarily for opere serie also wrote comic works for various theatres in Naples.
These composers included Alessandro Scarlatti (1660-1725), Leonardo Vinci (1690-
1730), and Johann Hasse (1699-1783).
During the second half of the seventeenth century, humorous elements were
gradually removed from opere serie and were placed exclusively in light-hearted
interludes between the acts of the serious works. These interludes were initially called
scene buffe. They contained minor characters from the parent opera seria, and the
characters acted out comic subplots. Gradually these interludes developed into separate
works with plots and characters unrelated to the serious works in which they were
interspersed. These works were termed intermezzi.29 The plots and characters were
drawn from the Commedia dell'arte tradition. A further development was the
"independent" intermezzo, that is a work intentended to be performed on its own.
The main period during which the Neapolitan intermezzo was written and
performed was from 1685 to 1750. In the early eighteenth century, independent
intermezzi were staged in Venice. Performance of independent intermezzi however,
became common in Naples after the first few decades of the eighteenth century. Naples
was the only centre of opera performance in which nearly every serious opera staged
between 1700 and 1735 was accompanied by scene buffe or intermezzi (Troy 1979, p.
47). Troy records that several libretti for intermezzi were printed in Venice between
1706 and 1709. He refers to these libretti as the first examples of the "international"
intermezzo repertoire. They became the core material for composers to set into comic
29 Troy (1979) draws distinction between intermezzi comici and intermezzi dramatici in eighteenth-
century Italy. Both were music comedy interludes, but the former were performed within plays, while
the latter were performed within serious operas. A significant difference between these genres was that
the singers of intermezzi comici would have been primarily actors, while those in intermezzi dramatici were professional opera singers.
Page 29 of 125
music works.
By 1710, travelling troupes of singers had access to a large collection of
intermezzi. Owing to performances of the genre by these troupes, intermezzi were the
first form of Italian dramatic music heard in many European countries in the first few
decades of the eighteenth century. After 1730 travelling opera companies disseminated
the genre to every part of Europe (Troy 1979, p. 55).
The comedic style of the Neapolitan intermezzo resulted in part from an
amalgam of the literary conventions of the Commedia dell'arte and the southern Italian
temperament. The latter could be said to be characterised by exuberance, extroversion,
overt sentimentality, colourfulness, and a tendency to melodrama (Lazarevich 1971, p.
297). Troy (1979, p. 22) observes that around the turn of the seventeenth century, a
change occurred with regard to the typical dramatis personae in scene buffe. The
lascivious older woman preying on a young man gave way to the characters of an older
man and a beautiful young woman. This latter combination of characters allowed a
variety of plots, which could be more believable in terms of everyday social
interactions. For example, the man could have amorous designs on the young woman or
vice versa; the young woman's intent could be to use her wiles to gain the older man's
fortune. Lazarevich suggests that in the classic period of the Neapolitan intermezzo, the
plot typically involved a domineering young maidservant who cunningly tricks her
older master into marrying her.30 La Serva Padrona is an example par excellence of the
genre. Against the background of a variety of character intents and emotions that could
be drawn around these two protagonists, Pergolesi and Paisiello had considerable
license with regard to how to interpret the relationship between Uberto and Serpina in
Federico's libretto.
Weiss (accessed 2011) notes that: "the term opera buffa was first applied to
the genre of comic opera as it rose to popularity in Italy and abroad over the course of
the eighteenth century". He further states that the true birthplace of opera buffa was
Naples. From its inception, Neapolitan opera buffa dealt with both serious and comic
characters and situations. Characters were believable, drawn from everyday life. The
30 Lazarevich (1971, p. 295) suggests that the classic period of Neapolitan intermezzo composition is
1720-1740.
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language in the texts was that common to the lower social classes. Griggs (1971, p. 555)
indicates that additional features of the genre included a flexibility and quick
adaptability to changing dramatic situations, and the discarding of formality wherever
possible. In the 1730s and 1740s, the genre of opera buffa quickly gained popularity in
other centres in Italy, including Rome and Venice. By the 1750s, opere buffe were
regularly performed throughout most of Europe. After 1750, works which were called
intermezzi were usually longer than those composed earlier and were closer to opera
buffa in structure and style. Paisiello's setting of La Serva Padrona falls into this
category.
Lazarevich (1971, p. 294) refutes the often-held notion that opera buffa
developed as a maturation of the comic intermezzo:
Although by the mid eighteenth century opera buffa and the intermezzo shared a common
musical language, dramatically and textually they represented two coexisting, but distinct forms.
Troy (1979) concurs, noting that works from the two genres were performed during the
first half of the eighteenth century in the Venice and Naples, the main centres of opera
production in Italy at that time. However, he notes that in Venice few full-length opere
buffe were performed before 1743, while the performance of independent intermezzi had
been common there since 1706. In Naples on the other hand, the staging of full-length
comic operas such as Michelangelo Faggioli's La Cilla began in 1706, and by 1714 such
works had usurped the production of serious works at the Teatro dei Fiorentini. Troy
suggests that the concurrent performance of the two genres to different extents in
disparate parts of the Italian peninsula makes it difficult to infer a causal relationship
between the proliferation of independent intermezzi and the development of the opere
buffa genre. He proposes that a more reasoned conclusion could be that the appearance
of the first independent intermezzi may have stimulated an expansion of the production
of opere buffe (Troy 1979, p.134).
Lazarevich (1971) contends that the two genres could be differentiated in
three aspects: origin, function and structure. While the original function of intermezzi
was to present a contrast in plot content and musical style with the serious work into
which they were inserted, Opere buffe were from the start intended to be stand-alone
works. Their function as a genre was to provide incisive, assessible caricatures of
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persons of various ranks in contemporary society and to reflect the prevailing mood of
questioning established social structures (Weiss, accessed 2011). With regard to
structure, opere buffe were larger scale works with at least six main characters, all of
whom performed several arias. Intermezzi were shorter, with fewer arias and only two
singing characters, any other characters being mimes.
Lazarevich (1971) suggests that the essential spirit of opera buffa, with its
Neapolitan Italian comedic style, influenced the music as well as comic literary works
of the mid- to late eighteenth century. An example of the latter is Pierre Beaumarchais'
play Il Barbiere di Siviglia, written in 1773 and first performed in Paris in 1775.
Giuseppe Petrosellini wrote a libretto based on this play. Paisiello set this libretto into
an opera buffa, which was first performed in St Petersburg in 1782.
Some consideration of the difference in music styles between intermezzi and
opere serie is relevant background for the comparative analysis in this study. Troy
(1979) draws distinctions between the arias of intermezzi and those of contemporaneous
opere serie in terms of dramatic development. Arias in intermezzi were almost always
da capo in form, as were those in contemporary opere serie. There were three broad
types of intermezzo aria: buffo, pathetic and dance rhythm. Pathetic arias were written
for texts which were intended to have a mock-serious affect (ibid, pp 114-116). Troy
observes that dramatic action tended to continue during the arias in intermezzi, while it
was more static in those of opere serie. The reason for this, he maintains, lies in the
nature of the libretti. Intermezzi libretti contained short, separate verbal phrases in prose
which are suited to repetition in musical settings, and which lend themselves to motivic
development. Opere serie libretti tended to contain longer verbal phrases, mainly in
verse, which lend themselves to correspondingly long melodic phrases and subsequent
melodic development (ibid, p. 97). In addition, intermezzi arias could contain
juxtaposed musical styles, with extreme contrasts in tempo if necessary. In this way they
could progress the dramatic action as each style related to a change in the physical or
psychological action (ibid, p. 102). An example of an aria in which pathetic and dance
rhythm elements are combined is Serpina's aria A Serpina penserete in Pergolesi's La
Serva Padrona. The piece is a tongue-in-cheek lament, interspersed with a minuet
rhythm section in which Serpina gloats over the distress she is causing to Uberto.
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Consideration of the music style of intermezzi in comparison to opere buffe
is also relevant to this study. Kerman (1956, p. 90) suggests that although most of the
action in opera buffa occurred in the recitativo semplice, the more important
development of the drama occurred in the ensembles. Duets invariably occurred at the
ends of intermezzo parts. There may have been others within the part, but they were
generally shorter. Troy (1979) notes that the duet's main function was as an "ensemble
finale". He suggests that duets in intermezzi can be seen as analagous to those in later
eighteenth-century opere buffe only up to a point. This, he suggests, is because
intermezzo duets in general maintained the da capo form. As such, their capacity to
progress the dramatic action was limited in the same way as it was in da capo arias. He
states that by contrast ensemble finales in opere buffe could advance the dramatic action
within a less formal musical structure. He further opines that the texts for duets in
intermezzi were such that, like aria texts, they merely elaborated on the dramatic
situation achieved in the preceding recitative (ibid, p. 118).
A clear exception to Troy's opinion of the function of duets in intermezzi is
found in the duet Lo conosco a quegl'occhietti in Pergolesi's La Serva Padrona. This
duet, which occurs at the end of the first part, does not have a da capo form. It clearly
advances the drama. For example, Uberto's initial shunning of Serpina's advances gives
way to a progressive weakening of his resolve. This is shown in his asides: Ah! costei
mi va tentando.. and Quanto va, quanto va che me la fa? (Ah, she's testing me..How
much, how much can I take?). Uberto's text O ch'imbroglio (O what a mess) occurs first
about three quarters of the way through the duet and is repeated a number of times,
including in the last line.
Figure 1.4
It is noteworthy that two of Uberto's notes in the penultimate bar of the vocal section of
the duet are a third higher than Serpina's. As shown in Figure 1.4, these are set on the
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text: ..egl'è per me ("..this is for me"). This is an example of the device Metabasis
Transgressio which is described in Table 2.2. In this duet, it implies an emotional
involvement between the characters. This is further evidence of progression of the
psychological action right up to the end of the duet.
Troy (1979) refers to another duet that has several stylistic features in
common with the opera buffa style of ensemble. This duet occurs at the end of Act 1 of
Alessandro Scarlatti's full-length comic opera Il trionfo d'onore (first performed in
Naples in 1718). It too does not have a da capo form. Troy suggests that this duet looks
forward to the ensemble finales of later eighteenth-century opere buffe, including those
with libretti by Carlo Goldoni and Lorenzo Da Ponte with their musical settings by
Baldessare Galuppi and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart respectively (ibid, p. 140). In this
context, it is pertinent to note the forward-looking structure of the duet Lo conosco a
quegl'occhietti in Pergolesi's work. Its deviation from the usual limited dramatic
function of duets in intermezzi may be a relevant pointer to the significance of
Pergolesi's work in the development of later eighteenth-century music drama. This may
be an example of one significant point of interception between the musical development
of intermezzi and opere buffe.
La Serva Padrona
Gennaro Antonio Federico (1726-1743) was a lawyer and very highly
regarded comedy writer in Naples in the eighteenth century. Three settings of his libretti
by Pergolesi received strong acclaim and achieved great popularity. These were: Lo
Frate 'nnamorato (1732), La Serva Padrona (1733) and Il Flaminio (1735). La Serva
Padrona was an intermezzo, the other works being commedie musicali.31 Although
written in standard Italian of the time, his libretto for La Serva Padrona is said to adopt
the rhythms and inflections of Neapolitan dialect, which Federico exploited for comic
and dramatic effect. Hucke and Monson (2007) suggest that this libretto provided
composers with a vehicle which facilitated a natural expression by the characters of
their emotions and intents.
Pergolesi's setting of La Serva Padrona was first performed at the Teatro
31 The term Commedia musicale meant a full-length comic opera in early eighteenth-century Italy.
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San Bartolomeo, the principal theatre in Naples, on 5th September 1733. It was
commissioned as part of the birthday celebrations for the Empress Christina, wife of
Charles VI. The two intermezzi were performed between acts of Pergolesi's opera seria
Il Prigionier Superbo. The latter received lukewarm reception, but La Serva Padrona,
by contrast, was enthusiastically received. By public demand it was subsequently
performed on its own for several nights. Aided by performances of travelling troupes of
Italian singers, the work's fame spread quickly throughout Italy, and thence to other
countries, being performed in some sixty European theatres during the next twenty
years. Hucke and Monson (2007) note that Pergolesi's work remained largely unedited
during the eighteenth century, a tribute to the quality of the setting.
On its first performance in Paris in 1746, it received little attention.
However, performances in the Grand Opera in 1752 by a troupe of Italian singers led by
Eustachio Bambini had far-reaching effects. The troupe performed four intermezzi:
Pergolesi's La Serva Padrona and his Livietta e Tracollo, the pasticcio: Il Maestro di
Musica and Orlandini's Il Marito Giocatore. These performances, particularly that of La
Serva Padrona, in the presence of King Louis XI and the Paris court polarised the
Parisian theatre-going public, leading to the querelle des bouffons. This manifested as a
war of words in pamphlets and newspaper articles by factions who supported or
opposed the new Italian comic style exemplified by Pergolesi's work. The quarrel
centered on an attempt to compare the merits of the style with those of the French
tragédie lyrique genre. Supporters included Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Denis Diderot and
André Ernest Modeste Grétry. The royal family also took sides, and the king eventually
expelled the troupe from France. Nevertheless, the seed had been sown for development
of a new French genre - opéra comique - based on the Italian comic style. Troy (1979,
p. 57) notes that the episode began a new chapter in the history of French opera, and as
such it represented a significant climax to the dissemination of the intermezzo by
travelling Italian singers.
Lazarevich (2007) suggests that the French gradually assimilated the Italian
comic idiom, adapting it into the opéra comique genre. Champions of this new genre
included Rousseau and Pierre Baurans. Rousseau's intermezzo: Le Devin du Village
(1752) was an early example. Baurans translated Federico's libretto of La Serva
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Padrona into French, added some music and substituted spoken dialogue for recitative.
His work, entitled La Servante Maitresse, was first performed in 1754. Pergolesi's work
was performed in English translations in London, and it also inspired several English
adaptations. One example was He Wou'd if he Could (1771) with text by Isaac
Bickerstaffe and music by Charles Dibdin.
Paisiello's setting of Federico's libretto in 1781 came about as a matter of
expediency. At the time of his appointment in St Petersburg in 1776, the court poet
Marco Coltellini was responsible for providing texts and libretti for Paisiello's
compositions. Coltellini died in 1777, and was not replaced. Paisiello was required to
produce a comic operatic work in 1781 for a festive occasion. Early in 1779, Catherine
had declared that Paisiello's operas for the Russian court should last no longer than an
hour-and-a-half.32 Aresi (2006) posits that after some unsuccessful attempts to get an
alternative librettist appointed, Paisiello had to fall back on a proven libretto with which
he was familiar. Lazarevich (2007) states that Pergolesi's setting of La Serva Padrona
had been performed in St Petersburg during the 20 years after its 1733 premiere. Aresi
(2006) suggests that discrepancies in the text with Pergolesi's setting may have been due
to Paisiello using only his recollection of the text, a printed libretto being unavailable to
him.
Unlike the Pergolesi work, Paisiello's setting was an independent
intermezzo. Its indended audience was a court audience, whereas that for Pergolesi's
work was the general theatre-going public.33 As noted earlier, intermezzi of the late
eighteenth century tended to be longer works than their earlier counterparts, and to have
a structure and musical style closer to opera buffa. That said, it is intriguing to note the
detailed similarities between Paisiello's setting and Pergolesi's. These similarities
include the presence of dotted rhythms and deceptive cadences in similar places in the
recitative settings, the use of recitativo accompagnato in an identical position in the
libretto. One explanation could be that Pergolesi's work was so well-known and revered
that Paisiello wanted to exploit the audience's likely familiarity with it to place in sharp
focus the differences in his own setting. The dramatic implications of differences in his
32 This explains why Paisiello's works for the Russian court were mostly short, in contrast to his full-
length opere buffe performed later in Naples (Robinson, accessed 2011).
33 Aresi (2006) indicates that the Paisiello's work was well received by Catherine and her court, as
evidenced by the presentation of expensive jewelry to the singers and composer after the performance.
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work would stand in sharp focus alongside the similarities. The similarities and
differences between the settings will be discussed further in the comparative analysis in
chapter 2.
Giovanni Battista Pergolesi
Pergolesi's initial musical training was in violin, his teacher being the
maestro di cappella in his home town of Jesi. He studied music at the Conservatorio dei
Poveri di Gesu Cristo from the early 1720s to approximately 1731. While at the
Conservatorio, his compositional and performance skills were noticed. He received his
first commission to write a sacred opera: San Guglielmo in 1731. His first comic opera
commission, Salustia, written under adverse circumstances was performed in 1732. It
was not well received. Notwithstanding this, his renown as a composer spread rapidly,
and he subsequently enjoyed the patronage of several Neapolitan royal families.
From the time he left the Conservatorio, Pergolesi regularly wrote comedic
works for the Teatro San Bartolomeo and for several minor theatres in Naples. He
became maestro di cappella to Prince Ferdinando Colonna Stigliano in 1732. His first
musical comedy work: Lo Frate 'nnamorato (1732) with a libretto by Gennaro Antonio
Federico, was very popular, and was performed over several months. Hucke and
Monson (2007) suggest that this work was so well liked that parts of it were recited and
sung in the streets over the next two decades. With the arrival of Charles Bourbon, the
Spanish claimant to the Neapolitan throne, Stigliano accompanied by Pergolesi retreated
to Rome. Here Pergolesi's Mass in F was received with great interest.
He became maestro di cappella to the Duke of Maddaloni in 1734. In this
position he was commissioned to write an opera seria and intermezzo for the birthday of
King Charles' mother. He set Metastasio's libretto Adriano in Siria and Tommaso
Mariani's libretto Livietta e Tracollo respectively. The latter intermezzo, which has the
title La Contadina Astuta became one of his most popular comic works.
Pergolesi never enjoyed good health, having in particular a chronic painful
leg condition which resulted in a limp. He died of tuberculosis in March 1736 at the age
of 26. Prior to his death, he had moved into a Franciscan monastery in Pozzuli. Here, he
is said to have written two of his best known sacred works: Salve Regina for soprano
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and strings and Stabat Mater for two solo voices and strings. The latter was first
published in London in 1749, and became the most frequently printed single piece of
music of the eighteenth century (Hucke and Monson 2007, p. 6).
Although highly regarded during his lifetime, Pergolesi had greater fame
posthumously. His music exemplified the features of what became known as the Galant
musical style.34 This compositional style is said to be partly attributable to the influences
of Leonardo Vinci (1690-1730), Leonardo Leo (1694-1744) and other earlier
composers. Pergolesi's music is said to have a distinctive Neapolitan style with
universal appeal, freshness and spontaneity (Hucke and Monson 2007, p. 7). Pergolesi
was praised in particular for his skill in text setting. Recitatives in his opere serie
involved expressive text setting usually associated with opera buffa. This included for
example, the use of repetition. Hucke and Monson (2007) suggest that Baldessare
Galuppi, Johann Hasse, Niccolò Jommelli and others used Pergolesi's text setting as a
model for their own works. Geiringer (1925) and Hucke and Monson (2007) suggest
that Pergolesi's use of short discrete melodic fragments, typical of the Neapolitan
intermezzo style, could adapt to the quickly developing drama in comic libretti.35
Lazarevich (1971 and 2007) comments on the compositional style of the arias and
ensemble pieces in Pergolesi's work. She notes that his use of short repeated melodic
segments, octave intervals and frequent repetition of cadential phrases as exemplified in
La Serva Padrona was the forerunner of the eighteenth-century preclassical style.
Some of Pergolesi's works mirror the socio-political undercurrents of early
eighteenth-century Neapolitan society. The city state had been under Austrian rule since
the beginning of the century, and came under the rule of the Spanish claimant Charles
Bourbon in 1734. Il Flaminio and La Serva Padrona in particular touch on the ambition
34 For the purposes of this study, the Galant style is defined as "a freer more chordal style of
composition with an emphasis on melody made up of short, often repeated motifs organized in 2- 3-
and 4-bar phrases, simple harmony and frequent cadences" (Grout and Palisca 2001, p. 427).
35 Troy (1979, pp. 44-6) maintains that the importance of other intermezzo composers such as Guiseppe
Maria Orlandini (1688-1760) has been understated. Many of Orlandini'a intermezzi - such as Il Marito Giocatore and La Preziosa Ridicola - were often performed in cities scattered throughout Italy
between 1712 and 1742, and the works were widely popular. The former work was performed in Paris
with Pergolesi's La Serva Padrona prior to the eruption of the querelle des bouffons. In addition, Troy
suggests that Orlandini is the most "international" of the intermezzo composers as his works enjoyed
early widespread success in countries outside Italy. It is interesting to speculate on whether Orlandini's
works were as important as Pergolesi's La Serva Padrona in the dissemination of the Italian comic
opera style.
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and rise of the middle class. Il Flaminio deals with the reversals of social status under
the Spanish regime (Hucke and Monson 2007, p. 7).
Pergolesi's main output was vocal music. There are few instrumental pieces
which can be reliably attributed to him. One such work, his Concerto for two
harpsichords in C major, is said to be one of the earliest examples of a keyboard
concerto composed in Italy (Hucke and Monson 2007, p. 9).
Giovanni Paisiello
Giovanni Paisiello was a prolific and highly respected composer of Italian
opera in the late eighteenth century. From the time he completed his formal musical
training at the Conservatorio di S Onofrio in 1763 to his death he was almost
continuously employed as a composer and musician, receiving in addition numerous
commissions. His output until 1778 consisted almost exclusively of operatic works.
From this year onwards, he produced predominantly sacred works. Robinson (2007,
p.1) notes that Paisiello considered himself to be a Neapolitan, preferring to live and
work in Naples.
His first appointment was in Bologna in 1763 as musical director of a small
opera company formed by the nobleman Guiseppe Carafa. This appointment led to
commissions for operatic works to be performed in a number of northern Italian
theatres. In 1766 he returned to Naples to work as a freelance composer, his main work
being composing comic operas for local theatres. He also wrote serious operas on
commission. King Ferdinando IV of Naples is said to have approved of his music.
In 1776, Paisiello accepted an appointment from Queen Catherine II of
Russia as maestro di cappella in St Petersburg. Catherine was determined to bring
contemporary European societal values and customs to her subjects. Aligned to this, her
aim was to increase the international respect of Russia with regard to cultural matters.
Accordingly, she invited Italian architects to modernise the city, and encouraged
intellectuals such as Voltaire, Denis Diderot and Friedrich Melchior von Grimm to visit.
She acquired important literary works and prominent paintings, and held ceremonial
balls and dinners (Molloy, 2005). Aresi (2006) notes that Catherine considered that it
was important for Russia to be seen to be in the vanguard of current trends in music,
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especially opera. Paisiello's duties included composing all the theatrical music the court
required, directing the court orchestra and the court opera company. Robinson (2007,
p.1) notes that the latter was a small Italian opera company that Queen Catherine
maintained for political prestige motives, rather than for any personal love of opera.
In Russia, Paisiello wrote Italian operas for a court audience whose normal
spoken language was not Italian. Robinson (2007, p.4) suggests that to compensate for
this he honed his abilities to communicate the text through musical means. These
included more illustrative orchestrations and increased warmth in his melodies.
His employment in St Petursburg continued until 1784, when he returned to
Naples to take up the position of compositore della musica de' drammi of the
Neapolitan court. Here he was required to write an annual 'heroic' opera and other
occasional music for the court as required. In 1787, King Ferdinando of Naples also
offerred him the position of maestro della real camera, which effectively put him in
charge of all secular music at the court. From 1787, he began to receive commissions
from monasteries and convents to write sacred works. In 1796, he was appointed
maestro di cappella of Naples Cathedral.
Napoleon Bonaparte had admired Paisiello's music since commissioning
him to write a funeral march for one of his generals in 1797. In 1802 Napoleon
appointed him as his private maître de chapelle in Paris. The composer's work consisted
in the main of reconstituting the choir and orchestra of Napoleon's private chapel. In
1804, he helped prepare music for Napoleon's coronation as emperor. This included
composing a new mass and reviving his Te Deum of 1791. He returned to Naples in
1804. However, he continued to receive monetary support from Napoleon, in return for
which he sent the emperor one or more sacred works per year.
In 1806, he was again appointed maestro di cappella and compositore della
real camera, this time by Napoleon's brother Joseph, who had been installed as King of
Naples. He continued to be highly favoured by Napoleon and his relatives until
Napoleon's fall in 1815. In that year, King Ferdinando returned to Naples and, in spite
of Paisiello's service to Joseph, retained him in his current positions. He continued in
this employment until his death in 1816.
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Paisiello's operatic output was prodigious. He composed twenty-seven
serious operas, and fifty-one comic operas of which eight were intermezzi. Robinson
(2007, p.4) summarises the characteristic musical features of Paisiello's operatic works
as a light melodic style with minimal ornamentation, relatively simple harmonies and a
strong sense of rhythm. Aresi (2006, p.9) adds that a characteristic of Paisiello's style,
which is a legacy of his Neapolitan roots, is the "predominance of unpredictable
harmonic twists". Weiss (accessed 2011) refers to Paisiello as one of the prominent new
composers of opera buffa of the later eighteenth century. He was clearly aware of the
Zeitgeist of the period, his setting of Il Barbiere di Siviglia being performed in St
Petersburg the year after his La Serva Padrona.
There are suggestions in the literature of Paisiello's possible influence on
Mozart. Paisiello studied with Francesco Durante (1684-1755) in 1755. Gjerdingen
(2007, p. 225) describes Durante as one of the early Neapolitan masters of the Galant
style. Some years later, in 1782 during his tenure in St Petersburg, Paisiello published a
collection of partimenti dedicated to the future Tsarina Maria Feodorovna, then Grand
Duchess of All the Russias.36 Gjerdingen provides a number of examples of Mozart's
use of partimenti contained in Paisiello's collection. It is interesting to speculate on
whether Mozart was influenced directly by this publication, or whether the two
composers' knowledge of the Galant style developed in parallel.
Robinson (2007, p. 5) suggests that during Paisiello's tenure in Russia there
appeared "in his melodic style certain turns of phrase reminiscent of Mozart". He further
notes that Mozart heard Paisiello's Il Re Teodoro in Venice in 1784 and probably his Il
Barbiere di Siviglia in 1783. The influence of Paisiello's works, he suggests, is evident
in parts of Le Nozze di Figaro (1786) and Don Giovanni (1787).37
Kerman (1956, p. 102) suggests that Paisiello's setting of Il Barbiere di
Siviglia was probably at the pinnacle of what could be done with the "rather simple-
minded technique of opera buffa". He suggests that this work was one of the models
36 Williams and Cafiero (2012) define partimento as: "A term used fairly frequently in the late 18th and
early 19th centuries to denote exercises in figured-bass playing, not so much as accompaniments to a
solo instrument as self-contained pieces."
37 For example, there is a striking similarity between the second half of Rosina's Act III aria: Gia riede primivera in Paisiello's Il Barbiere di Siviglia and Barberina's cavatina: L'ho perduta in Le Nozze di Figaro.
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Mozart used for his opere buffe. He notes however, that the latter were more
sophisticated than Paisiello's best works in terms of the compexity of the interplay
between dramatic action and musical continuity.
Expected Similarities and Differences in their Settings of La Serva Padrona
Pergolesi and Paisiello have a number of attributes in common. Both had a
background of living, studying and composing opera for performance in Naples. Both
were considered to be leading proponents of the "Neapolitan style"38. Both were native
Italian speakers, and would therefore be expected to have an intimate consciousness of
the prosody of the Italian language and the Neapolitan dialect. They would be expected
to be aware of the dramatic possibilities inherent within Federico's libretto.Their output
was predominantly vocal music, mainly opera, especially comic, with a lesser output of
sacred works. Instrumental works formed a minor component of their output.
Both works were comic intermezzi. As discussed earlier, Pergolesi's work
was intended to be performed between the acts of an opera seria. It had to gain the
audience's attention quickly, to be sharp and 'punchy' with minimal space for reflective
arias. By contrast, Paisiello's work was an independent intermezzo, intended to be
performed in its own right. Notwithstanding Queen Catherine's instruction to Paisiello
that operas were not to exceed one-and-a-half hours in length, faithful adherence to
Federico's libretto would have resulted in a work that was too short. The overall length
of Pergolesi's setting, even with an added overture, would be about one hour. Therefore,
Paisiello's setting needed to be longer. This may explain, for example, the addition of
the aria Donne vaghe studi nostri and the duet Donne infeste all'altrui bene. The overall
structure of the settings is shown in Tables 1.1 and 1.2.
38 Alessandro Scarlatti (1660-1725) dominated the Neapolitan scene for 35 years as composer and
teacher. He educated an entire generation of Neapolitan composers. He acquired the reputation of
founder of the "Neapolitan school". Salient features of this Neapolitan compositional style included
smoothe melodious vocal writing, clarity of tonal direction and imaginative and beautiful expression
of emotion (Lazarevich 1971, p. 299).
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Table 1.1: Structure of the settings of the First Part
First Part
Pergolesi setting Paisiello setting
Title and form Key/Meter Title and form Key/Meter
Start End Start End
U:39 Aspettare e non venireAria
Bb Bb Overture Bb Bb
4/4 U: Aspettare e non venireAria
Eb Eb
2/4
U and S: Questa è per me disgraziaRecitativo semplice
D F U: Questa è per me disgraziaRecitativo semplice
D D
U and S: Ma quando la finisciDuet
G G
4/4
U ad S: Ola dove si sta?Recitativo semplice
D D
U: Sempre in contrastiAria
F F U: Sempre in contrastiAria
D D
4/4 4/4
U and S: In somma delle sommeRecitativo semplice
D E U and S: In somma delle sommeRecitativo semplice
D G
S: Stizzoso, mio stizzoso!Aria
A A S: Stizzoso, mio stizzoso!Aria
Bb Bb
2/4 2/4
U and S: Benissimo! Hai tu inteso?Recitativo semplice
D G U and S: Benissimo! Hai tu inteso?Recitativo semplice
D G
U and S: Lo conosco a quegli occhiettiDuet
G G U and S: Lo conosco a quegli occhiettiDuet
G G
4/4 2/4
39 U = Uberto, S = Serpina.
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Table 1.2: Structure of the settings of the Second Part
Second Part
Pergolesi setting Paisiello setting
Title and form Key/Meter Title and form Key/Meter
Start End Start End
U and S: Or che fatto ti sei dalla mia parteRecitativo semplice
A Bb S: Donne vaghe studi nostriAria40
Eb Eb
2/4
U and S: Or che fatto ti sei dalla mia parteRecitativo semplice
D C
U and S: Donne infeste all'altrui bene41
Duet
F F
6/8
U and S: Io crederei che la mia serva adessoRecitativo semplice
D D
S: A Serpina pensereteAria
Bb Bb S: A Serpina pensereteAria
Gm Gm
4/4, 3/842 4/8
U and S: Ah, quanto mi fa maleRecitativo semplice
C F U and S: Ah, quanto mi fa maleRecitativo semplice
G D
U: Peraltro io pensereiRecitativo accompagnato
F C U: Ah poveretta lei43
Recitativo accompagnatoC Gm
4/4 4/4
U: Son imbrogliato io giàAria
Eb Eb U: Son imbrogliato io giàAria
C C
4/4 4/4
U and S: Favorisca, signor! Recitativo semplice
F A U and S: Favorisca, signor!Recitativo semplice
D A
U and S: Contento tu saraiDuet44
A A U and S: Contento tu saraiDuet
D D
3/8 2/4, 6/8,
2/4
40 The text of this aria is not part of Federico's libretto.
41 The text of this duet is not from Federico's libretto. It is interpolated into his recitative text.
42 The aria is in da capo form and it ends with a 4/4 section.
43 The text of the two composers' recitativo accompagnato is the same, apart from the first phrase A poveretta lei. This phrase ends the previous recitative in Pergolesi's setting.
44 Troy (1979, p. 88) notes that the duet Per te io ho nel core is frequently substituted for Contento tu sarai in editions of La Serva Padrona. Pergolesi wrote this duet for his comic opera Flaminio, first
performed in 1735.
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The additional aria and duets, and the inclusion of an overture45 in the
Paisiello setting is consistent with the difference in purpose of his work. However,
Lazarevich (1979) in the preface to her edition of Hasse' Larinda e Vanesio, comments
that from the mid-eighteenth century it was common performance practice for
intermezzi to be preceded by overtures.46
Troy (1979, p. 27) maintains that throughout its history the comic
intermezzo retained the overall musical organisation of the seventeenth-century scene
buffe - that is, each part contained one or two arias for each of the two characters, with
intervening recitatives and a concluding duet. This does not hold true for Paisiello's
setting, as he has inserted additional duets within the recitatives in both parts. Paisiello's
setting contains features of opera buffa. These include a greater reliance on duets to
progress the drama, arias which do not correspond to the standard types expected in
intermezzi, and more complex orchestration. Paisiello's score includes woodwinds and
horns, as well as strings and continuo, whereas Pergolesi's score is for string quartet and
continuo.
In terms of music style, both works would be expected to have features of
the Neapolitan comic style and the Galant style, which were described earlier in this
study. This holds true. Both strongly incorporate the buffo style - including repetition of
syllables, words and phrases, parody of elements of serious opera, justaposition of
varied tempi and meters and comic realism in the vocal settings. These features apply
both to arias/duets and to the recitatives. The arias and duets in both works exhibit the
Galant style, with a melodic emphasis on short, repeated motifs, simple harmony and
frequent cadences.
The aria Donne vaghe studi nostri (Lovely ladies, we study grace and
charm), which is the first piece of the second part of Paisiello's setting, is an addition to
the libretto. The text is not Federico's and its author is unknown. In the aria Serpina
sincerely indicates that she plans to use her wiles to try to secure the heart of the older
Uberto. This aria does not seem to fall into any of the three standard types of intermezzo
45 Troy scrutinized some one thousand manuscripts of early eighteenth-century intermezzi. He did not
find a single example of an intermezzo that was to be played between the acts of an opera seria having
an overture (Troy 1979, pp. 127-8) .46 Performances of Pergolesi's La Serva Padrona in Paris in 1746 and 1752 were preceded by overtures
composed by Giuseppe Antonio Paganelli and Georg Phillipp Telemann respectively.
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aria - buffo, pathetic or dance-like. It has a similarity in terms of musical style and
heartfelt sentiment to the Countess' cavatina Porgi amor in Mozart's Le Nozze di Figaro.
It suggests a more mature Serpina than the character in Pergolesi's setting.
The text of the duet Donne infeste all'altrui bene, che rapite i cuori altrui
(Ladies replete with others' belongings, who steal others' hearts) is not part of Federico's
libretto. It is interpolated into the recitative text in the second part of Paisiello's setting.
The duet does not have a da capo form and it further develops the contest of wills
between Serpina and Uberto and the latter's gradual weakening. This duet clearly does
progress the drama, as Uberto implies that if he allowed himself to tolerate Serpina's
advances, he would lose his free will. As noted earlier, similar emotional and character
developments are evident in the duet Lo conosco in quegli occhietti which concludes the
first part of Pergolesi's setting.
Paisiello's setting of the final duet Contento tu sarai (You will be contented)
contains changes in meter and tempo, signifying a crescendo of emotional connection
between Serpina and Uberto. In common with Pergolesi's setting, it does not have a da
capo form. The latter, however, does not have changes in meter.
To sum up, it can be concluded that some of the expected differences
between the settings in terms of structure and style of the arias and duets are present. It
could be argued that the recitatives may be the component least likely to have changed
significantly in the forty-eight years between the settings. Both works would be
expected to have the style of recitative which developed early in the eighteenth century
for intermezzi, as discussed earlier. Changes in the conventions of harmonic patterns and
bass figures may have occurred over the interval. However, it might be inferred that
differences between the recitative settings were in the main attributable to the
composers' interpretations of the drama in the text, as well as to their individual tastes.
Aims of the Study
A central tenet of this study is that it is valid to examine the drama which is
immanent in the written music of recitatives as a separate issue from how drama is
created by the singers and instrumentalists in performance. Kerman (1956, p.6), in
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discussing operatic activity, be this performance, study or informed listening, suggests
that a "serious search for dramatic values with an informed respect for tradition" ought
to be the basis for the development of standards. He further asserts: "To estimate the
meaning of a work of art of the past, to reconstrue the composer's conception in terms
that are meaningful now - this takes an imaginative effort, as always" (ibid, p. 22). He
postulates: "The critical procedure involves a sharpening of musical awareness and an
expansion of our range of imaginative response to drama." As noted earlier, he puts
forward the view that the main issue that composers have to grapple with in operatic
dramaturgy is the relationship or interplay between action and music (ibid, p. 98). He
maintains that "Composers of the past left, not a series of immature experiments, but a
number of solutions, each distinct, and each with the potentiality of artistic success
within its own limitations" (ibid, p. 5).
Monelle (1978, pp. 245-6) posits that a feature of recitativo semplice in
Neapolitan opera seria was an "extreme subtlety" in its musical impact which, he
suggests, escapes most modern listeners. Although the musical effect of recitative in
Neapolitan comic operatic works might be more obvious, it is still appropriate to
attempt to tease out the underlying mechanisms involved in its creation of drama.
This study seeks answers to two broad questions. How have Pergolesi and
Paisiello used music compositional devices for the rhetorical delivery of text in the
recitatives in their settings of La Serva Padrona to create and convey selected
manifestations of drama? What are the explanations for the differences in their settings
of the recitatives? The manifestations of drama which will be considered are: the intent
of the characters,47 the emotion within the characters, and the dramatic impulse.48
Compositional devices for the rhetorical delivery of text in recitative will be
examined under four broad headings: those concerned with rhythm, those concerned
with melody or pitch, those concerned with harmony and those concerned with keys. To
facilitate the comparison, I will derive a taxonomy of compositional devices.
Compositional devices within this taxonomy will be chosen on the basis that they are
47 For the purposes of this study, the 'intent of the characters' means their wants and desires, aspirations
and needs.
48 For the purposes of this study, 'dramatic impulse' includes the unfolding, pacing, increase and decrease
of tension and sense of forward movement of the action, both physical and psychological.
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the most relevant to recitative composition of the resources available to composers at
the time for the rhetorical delivery of text through music. In deriving the taxonomy, I
will draw on eclectic sources. These include relevant published theses, especially those
of Monson (1983) and Glixon (1985).49 I will use writings on compositional devices in
recitative in the Baroque and Classic periods, such as those of Lazarevich (1971 and
2007), Downes (1961), Monelle (1978), Tomlinson (1981 and 1982), Rosen (1971) and
Agawu (1991). I will extrapolate from concepts within Musica Poetica, as described by
Bartel (1997), and will consider conventions of Italian poetry structure and declamation
(Carroli, 2008).
Significance of the Study
The study will be a systematic comparative analysis of the use of
compositional devices in recitative to create and convey selected manifestations of
drama. It will test the concept that the application of music to text, in the context of
recitative writing in eighteenth-century Italian opera, can significantly condition
selected manifestations of drama within a libretto. A systematic comparison of the
recitative in the two works chosen appears not to have been done. The analysis will be
an unique documentation of the potential dramatic outcomes resulting from the use of
compositional devices available in the eighteenth century for the rhetorical delivery of
text through music.
It is acknowledged that a limitation of this study is that it focuses on the
creation of drama in recitatives only, whereas the foregoing discussion indicates that the
dramatic action, in terms of revelation of character emotion and intent, progressed in the
arias and duets of works of the type to be compared. However, where appropriate in the
study, consideration will be given to dramatic developments occurring in arias and duets
adjacent to the recitative sections being compared.
A practical application of the methodology used in the study is to assist
performers, stage directors, conductors and dramaturgs in the realisation of the
recitatives in operatic works. It may also help listeners and music scholars appreciate
more fully the function of recitative in works such as those compared in this study.
49 I will draw in particular on Glixon's 1985 analysis of the dramatic functions and uses of musical
devices in the recitative of seventeenth-century Venetian operas.
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Chapter 2: The Study
The aim of the analysis is to compare how Pergolesi and Paisiello have used
compositional devices in the recitatives in their settings of La Serva Padrona to create
and convey selected manifestations of drama. Further detail of the analytic method was
given in the 'Aims of the Study' section. In this context, Kerman's discussion of the
composer's ability to realize the potential drama in the libretto is pertinent. He notes that
the libretto is at once the inspiration for and the limitation of the composer's task as a
dramatist. Composers will succeed to varying degrees in realizing the dramatic
possibilities in elements of the libretto. Their success or otherwise will depend on how
well the element suits their particular skills (Kerman 1956, p. 29).
In this chapter, I will list compositional devices which I have identified
during analysis of the two settings. Devices related to Rhythm, Melody, Harmony, Keys
and any combination of these are listed. For the purposes of this study, I have given
each device a short title. I will then compare the settings of a selection of recitative
sections from the two works. Recitative sections are chosen on the basis that they are
pivotal to the elaboration of the drama and because they highlight the use of specific
compositional devices. The contrasting dramatic implications for the works will be
discussed.
Selected Compositional Devices
Rhythm used in setting the text
Glixon (1985), comparing the closed form of text for aria with the free verse
form of text for recitative, comments:
While an aria moves in phrases that are more-or-less predictable and regular, recitative,
following a freely metrical text, moves in phrases that are essentially unpredictable, often
irregular, and of indeterminate length: the composer can present as many or as few words in a
phrase as he wishes, and within the phrases, the possibilities of rhythmic organisation are
numerous (Glixon 1985, p 66-7).
Table 2.1 lists compositional devices related to rhythm used for setting text
into recitative.
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Elongation Setting a syllable, word or phrase over long note values for
emphasis.
Metrical de-emphasis Deliberate placement of syllables which would be accented in
normal speech on beats with weak metrical accentuation values.
It can be used to draw attention to a word. This relates to
De'Ath's text rendering method described in chapter 1. The
device can also be used to indicate an aside or parenthesis. For
example, it could convey a feigned attitude of confusion, or of
being downtrodden (Glixon 1985, p. 112 and p. 125).
Metrical emphasis Placement of words/syllables on beats with strong metrical
accentuation values in order to emphasize them.
Parola tronca Deliberate shortening of Italian words by removing the final
vowel syllable. (This might also be done by the librettist.) It
enables the composer to use the 'masculine cadence' for
emphasis as opposed to the expected 'feminine cadence' (Glixon
1985, p 54). An example is amor for amore.
Repetition Repetition of a syllable, word or phrase for emphasis or comic
effect.
Silence Intentional use of silence to slow the perception of text pacing.
Synaeresis/Diaeresis Synaeresis occurs where two vowels within the same word are
pronounced in the time of one syllable. This is common in
spoken Italian. Diaeresis means intentionally not applying
synaeresis for the purpose of emphasising the word. It is
signified by two dots over the first syllable. For example:
passïone indicates that the "i" and "o" syllables are each to be
pronounced as opposed to more usual practice of pronouncing
them in the time of one syllable (Carroli, 2008).
Table 2.1 Compositional devices related to rhythm.
Other compositional devices related to the rhythm of text setting include the
use of discrete phrases as opposed to phrases that run together without gaps, and
varying the number of words in musical phrases. This relates to the concepts of 'sense
groups' and metrical emphasis described in chapter 1.
Melody used for setting the text
Although recitative is intended to be speech-like, it is usually melodic in
nature. As such, it proceeds in phrases and complies with many of the standard features
of melodic design - such as leaps being compensated by returns in direction, phrases
having contours with carefully determined high and low points, resolutions toward the
tonic being prepared by melodic contours that emphasize the leading note and the
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seventh. Table 2.2 lists relevant compositional devices related to melody used for setting
text into recitative.
Anabasis, ascensus An ascending musical passage which expresses ascending or
exalted images or affections (Bartel, 1997 p. 179).50
Bass/melody relationship
The relationship of the melody in the voice part to that in the
figured bass.51
Catabasis, descensus A descending musical passage (usually chromatic). 52
Dissonance Accented and unaccented dissonance can be used to emphasize
a word or phrase (Glixon, 1985 p. 34).
Imitated intervallic pattern
A melodic sequence copied by characters in dialogue may imply
empathy, shared emotion, similar intent or that one character is
parodying the other (Glixon 1985, p. 200).
Metabasis, Transgressio
Crossing of one voice part by another signifies some form of
involvement between the characters (Bartel, 1997 p. 319).53
Non-directional melodic segment
A series of phrases whose melody does not seem to have an
apparent direction. 54
Pitch highlight Setting a word or syllable on a high (or low) pitch for
emphasis.
Reciprocal phrases The placement side-by-side of two opposite phrases - falling
and rising for example. This device is used to express circular or
opposing ideas, emotion or action.55
Repeated notes Repeated notes may be used for poetic declamation.
Sequence A repeated set of intervals with an identical or very similar
contour, usually with identical or similar rhythm. Sequences can
emphasize the similarity of ideas in the sections of text.
Shift in tessitura A sudden shift in tessitura can be used to signal parenthesis or
an aside (Glixon 1985, p. 112). 56
Vocal arpeggiation The harmony remains constant while the vocal line moves in an
arpeggio fashion. This can be used to slow the forward
movement or to signal an aside (Glixon 1985, p. 81).
Table 2.2 Compositional devices related to melody.
50 An example unrelated to recitative is in Et Resurrexit from Johann Sebastian Bach's B Minor Mass.
51 Downes (1961) notes that an unusual melodic interval in the bass line could be used to draw attention
to an important dramatic event.
52 May express descending, lowly, or negative images or affections (Bartel 1997, p. 215).
53 An example is the last line of Pergolesi's setting of the duet Lo conosco in La Serva Padrona. Here,
Uberto's notes are above Serpina's, signifying his inextricable emotional involvement with her.
54 This can heighten impact of neighbouring directional phrases (Glixon 1985, p.75).
55 The Musica Poetica term for a similar device is Circulatio, Circulo, Kyklosis. This usually refers to 8-
note phrases, and can be a text-expressive device or simply an ornament (Bartel 1997, p. 216).
56 An example is a drop in the melody to the point of sounding like another voice: for example down a
4th or 5th.
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Harmonies used in setting the text
The overall structure of recitative is achieved through the harmonies implied
in the figured bass and the types of cadence used. In contrast to compositional devices
involving rhythm, devices related to harmony do not interrupt the flow of text. They can
therefore provide a more abrupt effect. As noted in chapter 1, Donington (1981, p. 41)
states that modulation was a necessary ingredient that enabled music to contribute to the
Florentine Camerata's ideal of continuously unfolding the drama in the text through
music. Glixon (1985, p. 66) adds to this that the possibility of exploring tonal areas that
are loosely related "keeps the musical action in motion, and avoids tedium in recitative".
She also suggests that tonal ambiguity is an inherent feature of recitative, and that
composers are free to exploit this. They could do this by establishing a tonal centre and
then by moving away from it at will. She uses the term being "on" as opposed to "in" a
key (ibid, p.73). Cadences, depending on their type, can close sections of recitative
more or less effectively.
There are a number of possible dramatic implications of the relationship
between the figured bass line and the melody. The bass line can remain stationary while
the melody moves, or it can move in parallel direction with, or in a contrary direction to,
that of the melody. For example, a stationary figured bass line below a moving melody
can imply stability, nobility or resolve. Another possibility was commonly seen in the
setting of the word costanza - constancy. The second syllable of this word was often set
to a sustained note, while the figured bass line moved rapidly (Glixon, 1985 example
2.32). Movement in a parallel direction tends to emphasize the approach to a
musical/textual climax. Movement in contrary motion could cast doubt on the validity
of the vocal line text, implying a countering idea.
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Johann Joseph Fux (1660-1741) proposed that recitative be allowed to
deviate from the rules of harmony that he laid down in his 1725 treatise Gradus ad
Parnassum. He noted that since the bass does not move in the manner in which
dissonances are usually resolved, the harmony cannot proceed towards resolution in the
usual manner. He explained that this dispensation could be allowed because in the
recitative style one aims not so much at the satisfaction of the rules of harmony but at
the expression of emotions. The latter, he noted was the reason for the development of
recitative (cited in Hansell, 1968). Downes (1961, p. 59) also states that recitativo
semplice is ordered by a different system of harmonic "rules" from those that govern
four-part vocal writing. A feature of this system, he notes, is the "liberal use of
secondary dominants". Almost every chord is a dominant of the following chord. The
resultant continual cadencing is well suited to the build-up and release of tension that
characterises conversational speech. Table 2.3 lists harmonic compositional devices.
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Ambiguous tonality Passages which do not have an implied harmonic direction or
where the tonality is unclear can either slow down or speed up
the forward movement.57 They can be used to contrast with
adjacent passages with clear tonality or harmonic direction.
Cadenza d'inganno The music seems to lead to a cadence, but then does not end on
the expected tonic.58
Chromatic approach
The chord used to approach a cadence can lend additional
emphasis or colour to it.59
Dominant harmony passage
Setting a section of text over dominant or other unstable harmony
affects the listeners' interpretation of the pacing of the recitative.60
First inversion chord passage
Passages of first inversion chords (either acending or descending)
may express frustration or longing (Glixon 1985, p. 249).
Harmonic rhythm A change in harmonic rhythm can signal a change of mood.61
Harmonic shift A sudden juxtaposition of different tonality can be used for a
number of dramatic purposes, including new ideas or emotions.
Imperfect cadence A cadence ending on the dominant chord can be used to express
a question or exclamation. It implies that there is more to come.
Inversions Inversions, in particular inversions of the dominant chord, are
inherently less stable than root-position chords, creating an
expectation of resolution.62
Pathopoeia A vivid representation of an intense or vehement affect through
chromaticism (Bartel 1997, p. 359).
Secondary dominant chain
A harmonic sequence in which the root of the harmonies
progresses by 5ths. This device can be used to accelerate the
perceived motion.63
Unexpected modulation
For example, going to the major key when the relative minor of
the current major key is expected, can suggest confusion or
vacillation.
Table 2.3 Compositional devices related to harmony.
57 It can also imply that the character is confused or distraught (Glixon 1985, p. 71 and p. 186).
58 This affects the impression of pacing in that an expected pause may not occur. It may also imply a
change of idea or emotion.
59 Examples are secondary dominant and chromatic approaches like the Neapolitan approach, in which
the bII6 chord precedes the dominant.
60 An extended passage based on a dominant chord can slow the perception of dramatic pacing, while
maintaining tension (Glixon 1985, pp. 74-5).
61 For example, a section of sustained harmony over a pedal followed by a section of rapidly changing
harmonies could indicate calmness and assurance in the first section, and agitation or anger in the
second section.
62 The resolution of these chords provides an automatic highlighting of the text. The first inversion
dominant chord is the frequent hallmark of the emotional, if not affective or pathetic, in recitative
(Glixon 1985, p. 78).
63 The note arrived at becomes the dominant of the next note. This can be used in a lively exchange
between characters, for example.
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With regard to the cadenza d'inganno, the combinations of bass movement
and figures used by the composers for recitatives in this study are shown below:
In C major, these correspond to:
a) G dominant 7th to E major first inversion
b) G dominant 7th to A flat major
c) G major to D major first inversion
d) G major first inversion to F major first inversion
As noted in chapter 1, an additional formula is that where the V chord is followed by the
VI. There appear to be no instances of this in the recitative excerpts examined in this
study.
Keys used for setting the text
Steblin (1986) discusses the use of individual keys to signify specific moods
or meanings. Alluding to the hexachord system, Geiringer (1925) comments that in
Pergolesi's setting Uberto's arias are in flat keys, emphasising his downtrodden affect,
while Serpina's tend to be in sharp keys, suggesting her youthful exuberance. The
hexachord system was based on the natural hexachord, which was a six-note mode
without a key signature. Although originating in the medieval period, it was well-known
to late seventeenth-century composers, and had remained a basis for composition.
Halton (2011, p. xxiii) notes that keys with one or more flats in the key signature were
based on the 'soft hexachord', while those with one or more sharps were based on the
'hard hexachord'. She observes that by the late seventeenth century instrumental timbre
and tuning influenced the affective colour of the keys. In the sharp keys the violins
tended to have a more strident sound, resulting in the use of these keys for "strong
assertive emotional affect". She proposes that a greater variety of keys was used in
opera, in comparison to solo voice pieces, for the purposes of implying contrasting
dramatic parameters of character emotion and intent (ibid). As shown in Tables 1.1 and
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1.2, Geiringer's assertion holds true, except for Serpina's mock-serious aria A Serpina
penserete. However, in Paisiello's setting, all three of Serpina's arias are in flat keys.
This could have relevance to the type of personality that the composers are trying to
paint - a confident, brash adolescent for Pergolesi's setting and a more calculating,
shrewd persona in Paisiello's. Whether exploitation of key colours applies to recitativo
semplice settings is unclear, although it would be expected to be relevant to recitativo
accompagnato.
In this context, the tuning systems used for the keyboard instruments may
have had an influence on the composers' use of harmonies and keys. Meantone tuning
was the predominant tuning system from the late fifteenth century until the early
eighteenth century. The system focusses on producing as many pure major thirds as
possible. However, as a result the intervals for four major thirds are too wide. One
perfect fifth interval is also too wide. The sound of a triad which includes any of these
intervals is jarring and unpleasant. In a meantone tuning cycle starting on C, the
unpleasant major thirds are those above Db, F#, Ab and B. The unpleasant perfect fifth
is Ab - Eb. These problems render some keys unuseable. The resultant effect on
compositional style was a tendency to use a limited number of major and minor keys.
Gann (1997) notes that the acceptable keys in this temperament were eight major keys
and their relative minor keys. These were C, D, Eb, E, F, G, A and Bb major and a, b, c,
c#, d, e, f# and g minor respectively.
It is not known whether meantone was the most common tuning in early
eighteenth-century Italian opera. However, Monson's analysis of the recitatives in four
of Pergolesi's opere serie suggests that his works may have been written for keyboard
instruments tuned in meantone temperament. He notes that the harmonic palette used
was limited, being mainly confined to the seven keys: C, D, E, F, G, A, and Bb and their
relative minors (Monson 1983, p. 198). Although Pergolesi occasionally used
harmonies outside these confines, it could be inferred that he was intentionally
employing their jarring sound for effect.
Well temperament came into widespread use during the eighteenth century.
It is likely that Paisiello's works were written to be performed with keyboard
instruments in this temperament. In this type of temperament, all keys on the 12 pitches
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were useable, but each key had a slightly different sound. The perfect fifths were all
useable, but the accuracy of the major thirds varied. For this reason, the keys had
different 'colours'. Gann (1997, chapter 3) states that the major triads on C, D, F, G, and
Bb were most accurate and sounded best. Major triads on Eb, E, A and B sounded less
pleasant, perhaps having a tense or unsettled or sound. Those on Db, F# and Ab were
unattractive to the ear. Minor triads grouped around A minor on the cycle of fifths
sounded best: d, e, f, b and a.
Tense triad or chord: For the purposes of this study, this term will be used
for triads of chords which would sound jarring, unpleasant or unsettled in the tuning
system that may have been used.
Compositional devices involving any combination of rhythm, melody, harmony and key
The compositional devices listed in the preceding sections on rhythm,
melody, harmony and key may be used simultaneously. For example, Downes (1961, p.
61) describes a number of stereotypical combined melodic/harmonic devices used to
indicate questions. These include the falling fourth followed by a rising second, the
falling second followed by a rising third. The accompanying harmony could be an
imperfect, Phrygian or deceptive cadence (cadenza d'inganno). A musical
representation of parenthesis or an aside in the text can be achieved in a number of
ways, including vocal arpeggiation, shift in tessitura, harmonic shift and combinations
of these. Lazarevich (1971, p. 313) notes that tirata were early devices for achieving a
symphonic-dramatic effect in intermezzi. Table 2.4 lists combined compositional
devices.
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Contrasting music styles
Contrasting styles of music, including harmonies or thematic
material may signify opposing ideas or affections. A contrasting
style may indicate an emotional distance between the characters.64
Dubitatio An intentionally ambiguous rhythmic or harmonic progression
can signify hesitation, doubt or confusion (Bartel, 1997 p. 242).
Exclamatio, Ecphonesis
A musical exclamation, frequently associated with exclamation in
the text. Examples are fermatas over each syllable; a rapidly
descending dotted passage; large intervals signifying
astonishment, a joyous shout or encouraging command; ascending
passage, using consonances in joyous events or dissonances in
sorrowful ones (Bartel, 1997 p. 265).
Interrogatio Musical questions rendered through various combinations of
pauses, rises at the end of the phrase or melody, imperfect
cadences or cadenze d'inganno (Bartel, 1997 p. 312).
March-like flourish65
Repeated orchestral chords in cut-dot and/or syncopated rhythm.
Suggests either resolve towards an action, or authority.66
Melisma Melisma ocurs where a syllable is set over two or more notes. It
can be used to emphasize a word, or for word painting.67
Mimesis For the purposes of this study, mimesis refers to an emulation in
music of the meaning of the text .68
Text repetition Repetition, particularly with the same pitch and rhythm,
emphasizes the meaning of the text.69
Tirata A rapid scalar passage, spanning a fourth to an octave or more
(Bartel, 1997 p. 409).
Table 2.4 Combined compositional devices.
64 The Musica Poetica term for such devices is Contrapositum, Antithesis, Antitheton (Bartel 1997, p.
197).
65 Rosen (1971, p. 72) uses this term in reference to Mozart's symphonic works. Agawu (1991, p. 30)
lists 'march' in his compendium of 'topics' in Classic music.
66 It may signify the tapping of the judge's gavel.
67 An example is melisma to illustrate the shimmering of stars. A melismatic cadential formula may
indicate an impassioned state (Glixon, 1895, p. 107).
68 An example outside recitative is the setting of the text "the double, double, double beat of the
thundering drum in the chorus Come if you dare from Henry Purcell's semi-opera King Arthur. Here,
both the melody of repeated descending 4ths and the syncopated rhythm depict the drums in music.
Glixon (1985, p.99) notes that the most mimetic text representations occurred in relation to a
physiological process such as breathing. An example is the low repeated note phrase on the syllables
in "Ta-pa-ta" in Pergolesi's duet Per te io ho nel core from La Serva Padrona. This represents the
supposed 'love drum' beating in Uberto's heart. A corresponding Musica Poetica term is Assimilatio, Homoiosis, defined as a musical representation of the text's imagery (Bartel, 1997 p. 207).
69 Text repetition can also have a melodic function. For example, it can change the balance in phrases in
the libretto, which might otherwise be inconsistent with good melodic structure.
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The Analysis
The libretto is in prose form except for Uberto's recitative soliloquy Ah
poveretta lei! Per altro penserei, which is in verse. The dramatic possibilities raised by
this difference will be considered in the analysis.
Selected recitative sections for comparison
The recitative sections which are compared occur in chronological order in
the works. Tables 1.1 and 1.2 provided the overall structure. The subheadings for the
sections describe the evolution of the drama at that point.
The first four sections are all from the opening recitative Questa è per me
disgrazia. As noted in Tables 1.1 and 1.2, this occurs after Uberto's first aria Aspettare e
non venire. In this aria, he repeatedly complains that he has been waiting three hours for
Serpina to bring his hot chocolate, and that she shows no gratitude for his good
treatment of her. Both composers chose a flat key for their setting of this aria. These
first four recitative sections could be seen as an initial exposition of the two
protagonists' characters, emotions, intents and of the relationship between them. They
set the scene for the ensuing drama.
Uberto bemoans Serpina's tardiness: Questa è per me disgrazia
Uberto bemoans his maidservant's increasing disobedience, arrogance and haughtiness. He tells his manservant to go and see why she's late with his chocolate.
Dramatically this section sets the scene for the subsequent physical and
psychological action and for the conflict between Uberto and Serpina. Uberto expresses
his annoyance at Serpina's failure to bring him his morning hot chocolate - he has been
waiting for three hours, and cannot go out until he has had it. He states in general terms
his annoyance with Serpina's behavour. He then takes out his annoyance on Vespone,
ordering him to go and find Serpina and see what is the problem. The section finishes
with the phrase addressed to Vespone: Sollecita, vedi che fa. The text suggests Uberto's
indecisiveness and pampered character. It shows his condescending, dismissive
relationship with the mute manservant Vespone. A translation follows.70
70 Translations are by the author.
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Uberto
Questa è per me disgrazia; son tre ore che aspetto, e la mia serva portarmi il cioccolatte non fa grazia, ed io d'uscire ho fretta. O flemma benedetta! Or sì, che vedo che per esser sì buono con costei, la causa son di tutti i mali miei. Serpina ... Vien domani. (A Vespone): E tu altro che fai? A che quieto ne stai come un balocco? Come? che dici? eh sciocco! Vanne, rompiti presto il collo. Sollecita; vedi che fa.
I find this a disgrace – I've been waiting 3
hours, and my servant girl hasn't deigned
to bring my chocolate, and I'm in a hurry
to go out. Oh curses!
Now yes, I see that by being so good to
her I'm the cause of all my troubles.
Serpina ... she'll come tomorrow.
(To Vespone): And you, what are you
doing? Standing mute like a statue? Eh?
What do you say? Eh twit! Go, shake a
leg. Stir her up; see what she's doing.
The settings, shown in Figures 2.1 and 2.2, illustrate contrasts in the use of
rhythmic, harmonic, melodic and key devices. The most striking contrast is in the
harmonies used. Pergolesi does not use any minor tonalities, whereas Paisiello uses
minor tonalities in bars 4 and 5. The placements of grazia on an E minor chord and
fretta (hurry) on an A minor chord in Paisiello's setting serve to emphasize Uberto's
frustration.71 The sudden move to a B major triad on the accented syllable of the word
aspetto (I am waiting) in Paisiello's setting also emphasizes Uberto's frustration. As
noted earlier, B major in Well temperament has a rather unsettled sound.
I believe that Paisiello's harmonic treatment creates a different kind of
emotion from that apparent in Pergolesi's setting. The minor tonalities impart a
brooding, almost ominous mood. The B major triad adds to the impression of Uberto's
distress at the loss of his usual routine. It helps convey the impression that things are out
of the ordinary. The apparent superficiality of Pergolesi's setting, by contrast, could be
in keeping with the imperative that an intermezzo had no time to create too much depth
early on in the work. It had to grab the audience's attention quickly.
The descending bass line with parallel movement in the vocal line in bars 1-
6 of Paisiello's setting emphasizes the movement to the dramatic climax of Uberto's
exclamation Oh flemma benedetta! Similarly, the stepwise ascending bass line in bars 8-
11 ending on the cadenza d'inganno to F major tonality emphasizes a dramatic climax -
Uberto states that Serpina is the cause of all his troubles. This climax leaves space for
71 The phrase non fa grazia translates as 'she hasn't the good grace'.
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his attempt to summon her. The expected final chord of the I-IV-V7 progression in these
bars would be A. Pergolesi uses a similar device in bars 7-9, with a I-IV-V7 progression
in C ending on a cadenza d'inganno to a first inversion E major chord. However,
Pergolesi's setting does not employ as strong a stepwise movement in the bass line. It is
noteworthy that both composers use a cadenza d'inganno at the same point, with the
bass rising by a semitone, albeit to a different destination harmony. This could suggest
that both composers respond to the text in the same way, that is, both want to highlight a
change from Uberto's introspection to his physical action in summoning her. Perhaps
both wished to set the scene for a demonstration of Serpina's intransigence. It could also
suggest that Paisiello, being well versed in Pergolesi's setting, chose to create the drama
at this point in a similar way.
With regard to rhythm, the noticeable difference in the settings of the first
sentence is that the accented first syllable of the word serva (female servant) is placed
on the beat 4 in Pergolesi's setting, while Paisiello places it on beat 1. This placement on
a beat with a stronger metrical accentuation could suggest that Paisiello wants to
emphasize the master servant aspect of Uberto's relationship with Serpina. The diagram
below shows a comparison of the metrical accentuation positions and indicates
Paisiello's compositional devices for the sense group: son tre ore che aspetto and the
rhythmic unit: e la mia serva.
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Figure 2.1 Giovanni Battista Pergolesi
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Figure 2.2 Giovanni Paisiello
The settings of the repetition of Serpina's name when Uberto attempts to
summon her are significantly different. In both settings, the text is preceded by a
cadenza d'inganno in the same metrical position. The differences in the settings of the
text which follows could suggest that Paisiello wanted a different effect in terms of
dramatic pacing. Pergolesi spreads the repetition of Serpina over 6 beats, with a minim
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on the accented syllable Serpina in bar 10. This is shown in the following diagram.
Paisiello, by contrast, sets the two words over fewer beats. He sets the
repetition on a V 4/2 chord. Downes (1961, p. 66) provides evidence that that V 4/2
chords were commonly used for emphasis in the recitativo semplice of eighteenth-
century opere serie. Paisiello's setting is shown in the following diagram.
By spreading these words over a longer time Pergolesi's setting serves to
emphasize the inherent drama in Serpina's lack of response, allowing a heightening of
the sense of Uberto's frustration. The settings have a subtly different significance in
terms of the meaning of the Italian text. Pergolesi's text means 'Serpina, Serpina! She'll
come tomorrow'. Paisiello's text Serpina. Serpina vien domani means 'Serpina. Serpina
will come tomorrow'. Pergolesi's setting allows more space for Serpina's lack of
response to sink in. At this point, I believe that Pergolesi's setting creates the dramatic
situation of Serpina's disobedience more clearly. Nevertheless, Paisiello may have
intentionally set this text with fewer pauses in order not to detract from the impression
of Uberto's agitated impatience.
The increase in harmonic rhythm in Paisiello's setting when Uberto is
addressing Vespone - from balocco onwards - reinforces the perception of Uberto's
frustration and agitation. I believe that Paisiello's harmonies more effectively signify the
dramatic situation - namely Uberto's emotions - at this point.
Uberto reveals his feelings for Serpina: Gran fatto!
Uberto reveals his feelings for Serpina, stating that he'll have to do something about her bad behaviour before too long.
This section continues immediately after the first section. It is pivotal to the
exposition of the principal male character, Uberto. It is a short racconto, that is a section
of libretto in which a character describes his or her background or reports on past events
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(Glixon 1985, p. 58). In adddition, it sets the scene for the plot of the work - the
maidservant becoming mistress. Uberto reflects on his experience of raising his maid
Serpina, providing some information about the history of their relationship. There is an
opportunity for the musical setting to help define Uberto's feelings for her - that is, how
he has felt about her in the past, and how he feels about her recent change in behaviour.
In the final sentence, Uberto refers to his manservant Vespone as a baboon. This
description defines Uberto's attitude to his manservant, and depending on how it is set,
can also emphasize his frustration. A translation follows.
Uberto
Gran fatto! Io m'ho cresciuta questa serva piccina. L'ho fatta di carezze, l'ho tenuta come mia figlia fosse! Or ella ha preso perciò tanta arroganza, fatta è sì superbona, che alfin di serva diverrà padrona. Ma bisogna risolvermi in buon'ora ... e quest'altro babbion ci è morto ancora?
What a situation! I've raised this little girl
servant myself.
I've caressed her, I've held her as though
she were my own daughter! Now she's
taken on such arrogance,
become so haughty,
that she'll go from being maid to mistress.
Well I'll have to do something soon ... and
that other baboon, has he died already?
The most noticeable devices in Paisiello's setting of this section are in the
harmonies used to create mood and imply emotion, the use of rhythmic devices to
emphasize the master-servant relationship, and a combined melodic and harmonic
device to create a dramatic climax at the end of the passage. The settings are shown in
Figures 2.3 and 2.4.
Paisiello again uses a B major triad, continuing the unsettled mood. The use
of minor triads on the accented syllables of piccinina (little girl) and ora (time) adds
emphasis to these words and emphasizes Uberto's brooding, self-pitying mood.72 By
contrast, Pergolesi uses only major tonalities.
72 Paisiello changes the word piccina to piccinina. The alteration emphasizes 'littleness'.
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Figure 2.3 Giovanni Battista Pergolesi
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Figure 2.4 Giovanni Paisiello
Figures 2.5 and 2.6 show the placement of syllables in the first sentence.
The placement is subtly different between the settings. The word 'cresciuta' (past
participle of 'crescere' - to bring up or raise) is spread over a full two crotchet beats in
the Pergolesi setting, while the same word takes two quavers in the Paisiello setting .
The first syllable of the word 'serva' (maidservant) has a metrical accentuation value73
73 An explanation of metrical accentuation values is given in chapter 1.
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of 2 in the Paisiello setting and 3 in the Pergolesi setting.
Figure 2.5 Position of syllables in Pergolesi
Figure 2.6 Position of syllables in Paisiello
In bars 9-10, Paisiello places the accented syllables of both serva (servant)
and padrona (mistress) on metrical position 1, wheras Pergolesi places them on the
metrically weaker positions 3 and 2 (bars 24-5). In addition, Paisiello places rests after
serva and diverrà. This intentional use of silence, spreading out the sense group, serves
to focus the listener's attention on these words. Pergolesi's setting, by contrast, runs the
sense group without any interruption. This raises the issue of notation versus expected
performance practice. As discussed in chapter one, we do not know how recitativo
semplice actually sounded. For Pergolesi's setting, it would be up to the performer to
insert pauses if he wished to highlight this aspect of the drama - that is a servant rising
to the position of mistress of the house. It may be that Pergolesi would have expected a
performer to do this. Nevertheless, Paisiello's setting indicates that he clearly wished to
guide the performer to insert the pauses and ensure the placement of strong emphases.
Bar 25 of figure 2.3 may be an instance where Pergolesi intended a cadenza
tronca effect in performance.74 The clash of a Bb appoggiatura on padrona with A and C
in the continuo could be a musical metaphor for the social dissonance between
maidservant and mistress.
An interpretation of the differences in these settings is that Pergolesi implies
that Uberto's predominant feeling for Serpina is tenderness. By contrast, Paisiello's
setting implies that Uberto's predominant consideration is that Serpina is a servant, and
that her rising to the position of mistress would be a threat to his social standing. The
rise in station from maid to mistress is the central paradox of the drama in this work.
74 As discussed in chapter 1, common performance practice would have been to sing an appoggiatura on
the penultimate syllable. Padrona would be sung as Bb-Bb-F, possibly with a continuo acciaccatura.
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Paisiello's setting could be interpreted as an invitation to the performer to emphasize the
contrast between maidservant and mistress in a comic manner as a way of anticipating
the ensuing drama. These differences in the settings may also be a reflection of the
expectations of the intended audiences for the works - the general theatre-going public
for Pergolesi's work versus a court audience for Paisiello's.
Pergolesi's setting of the word tenuta (past participle of the verb tenere - to
hold) is a mimesis. The accented second syllable is given a full crotchet on the
metrically strongest position. This holding of the syllable is a metaphor for Uberto
cradling Serpina. The word is given no particular emphasis in Paisiello's setting. This
adds to the impression of a stronger emphasis on Uberto's tenderness for Serpina in
Pergolesi's setting.
Paisiello uses a combined melodic and harmonic device to emphasize
Uberto's added frustration with his manservant Vespone. The accented second syllable
of babbion (baboon) is placed on a high chromatic note, reached by leap of an
augmented 4th. This is an example of Pathopoeia - a representation of Uberto's intense
frustration through chromaticism. The underlying harmony is a bVI-V progression. This
chromatic approach to the dominant occurs within an imperfect cadence in G minor.
The cadence, which stresses the question to be answered - "has that baboon died on
me?" - is given more emphasis by the chromatic approach.
Serpina reveals her agenda: Adunque perch'io son serva
Serpina tells Uberto that she won't take orders from the manservant. She wants to be respected, revered, as though she were the mistress of the house.
Serpina has begun to berate and hit Vespone because, at his master's
bidding, he has told her to hurry up with preparation of the chocolate. Uberto scolds her
for chiding a fellow servant in his presence. In this passage of recitative Serpina
assertively states that she is no longer prepared to be treated as a servant. She reveals
her agenda to climb the social ladder and be treated as the mistress of the house. This
recitative section is pivotal to the exposition of the plot.
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Serpina
Adunque perch'io son serva, ho da esser sopraffatta? Ho da essere maltrattata? No signore, voglio esser rispettata, voglio esser riverita come fossi padrona, arcipadrona, padronissima.
So ... just because I'm a servant, must I be
trampled on? Do I have to be maltreated?
No sir, I want to be respected, I want to be
revered as if I were the mistress, the great
mistress, the exalted mistress.
I believe that the composers portray Serpina's character differently in this
section (Figures 2.7 and 2.8). In Pergolesi's setting, she is more strident and overt about
her intentions, as though she doesn't mind Uberto being aware of them. She doesn't
hesitate to openly express her ambitions in his presence. This is consistent with an
existing rapport between them, which is more apparent in Pergolesi's work in general.
The rapport is also signaled by the motivic exchange in bars 44-5. By contrast, in
Paisiello's setting, her intention is less forthright, more subtle, and probably aimed more
at the audience than at Uberto. She appears more calculating, emotionally aloof.
Figure 2.7 Giovanni Battista Pergolesi
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Figure 2.8 Giovanni Paisiello
The most noticeable contrast in the settings is the difference in devices used
to convey Serpina's intent. Pergolesi's use of a combined melodic and harmonic device
is a metaphor for Serpina's ascent of the social ladder. This consists of a melodic
sequence rising in a stepwise fashion underpinned by a chromatically ascending figured
bass line. The harmonies are a chain of secondary dominants. This combined device
emphasizes the climax on the accented syllable of the word padronissima (the exalted
mistress). This climax is heightened by the B dominant 7th chord in its most tense
position (#4-2), and by the subsequent cadenza d'inganno.
Paisiello uses an extended dominant passage (bars 3-5) to slow the
perception of the pacing of this section, and to emphasize Serpina's dissatisfaction with
her current downtrodden situation. This contrasts with the acceleration in harmonic
rhythm in the following bars. He uses a sudden harmonic shift to F minor tonality to
emphasize Serpina's intent to be respected (rispettata), revered (riverita), as though she
were the mistress (padrona). The passage reaches a melodic climax on archipadrona
(the great mistress). The Bb harmony, the dominant of a cadence to Eb on padronissima
(exalted mistress), is extended over bars 9-10 for emphasis. This final word is on a
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metrically and melodically weaker position than archipadrona. Compared to Pergolesi's
setting, this almost seems an anticlimax. However, it could be interpreted as an aside, a
'wink and a nudge' to the audience.
The similarity between the settings in the position and type of compositional
devices and the metrical placement of syllables in the first five bars is noteworthy. It
brings into sharp focus the differences in the remaining bars.
Uberto decides to act: Di che ride quell'asino?
Uberto decides that he'll be patient and lenient with Serpina no longer, that he'll put her in her place at last.
Vespone has begun to laugh at his master's cynical joke about having
enjoyed his non-existent morning chocolate. Serpina asks what has amused Vespone
(What's this ass laughing at?). Uberto's rising annoyance at Serpina's recalcitrance is
evident in the text. By the end of the section he arrives at a decision to take matters in
hand. This recitative immediately precedes Uberto's aria Sempre in contrasti con te
(Always at odds with you), in which he expands on his annoyance, and his resolution to
take decisive action.
Uberto
Serpina: Di che ride quell'asino? Uberto: Di me, che ho più flemma d'una bestia. Ma bestia non sarò, più flemma non avrò, il giogo scuoterò, e quel che non ho fatto alfin farò!
Serpina: What's this donkey laughing at?
Uberto: At me, for I'm more tolerant than a
beast. But I won't be a beast, I'll be
tolerant no longer, I'll throw off my
shackles and do at last what I haven't done
yet!
The settings show contrasting use of harmonic and rhythmic devices to
imply Uberto's rising agitation and resolve (Figures 2.9 and 2.10). Paisiello sets the last
sentence as recitativo accompagnato with repeated 'march-like flourishes'. The latter are
a musical symbol of his military-like resolve to take Serpina in hand. They sound like
the tapping of a judge's gavel, indicating that a decision has been made. Pergolesi uses
the device of a stationary figured bass note with the vocal line moving in an arpeggio-
like sequential ascending melody to indicate Uberto's rising resolve. In Paisiello's
setting, Uberto's rising resolve is signalled by stepwise ascending sequences in bars 3-5
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and the chromatic ascent in the bass to a G minor triad in bar 6.
Figure 2.9 Giovanni Battista Pergolesi
Figure 2.10 Giovanni Paisiello
Pergolesi uses an ascending repeated sequence with climaxes being on the
high pitches of il giogo (shackles) and farò (I'll do). The bass note with F major tonality
remains constant throughout bars 2 to 5, while the melody ascends in a sequence. The
approach to the I6-IV-V-I cadential figure in bars 6 and 7 is prepared by the use of the
secondary dominant in bar 5. This device makes the cadence more emphatic.
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Paisiello also uses an ascending sequence, which is repeated twice. The
sequences are punctuated by repeated chords in the ensemble. These march-like
flourishes stand out like exclamation marks. Uberto's vocal line echoes this march-like
rhythm. The bass line ascends chromatically via secondary dominants. The parallel
movement of the melody and bass line lead to the climax on farò (I'll do). Uberto's
frustration is vividly painted by placing the word fatto (done) on a high chromatic note.
The sudden harmonic shift in bar 7 - A dominant 7th in third inversion which resolves
to D major at the beginning of the following aria - implies hurried decisiveness. The
orchestral cadence moving into the aria without delay is an effective metaphor for
Uberto's sudden change of mood. There is no orchestral introduction in the aria, the
vocal part commencing in the first bar. In Pergolesi's setting by contrast, there is a pause
in the musical action as we wait for the recitative's cadence. The aria then has a seven
bar introduction before the vocal part starts. I believe that here the music in Paisiello's
setting more clearly relates to the pacing of the psychological action in the drama.
Serpina's emotional blackmail: Insomma delle somme
Serpina complains that in return for looking after Uberto, he insults her and treats her badly. He agrees eventually that perhaps he's been a bit unfair.
This recitative section comes immediately after Uberto's aria Sempre in
contrasti con te (Always in conflict with you), in which he has berated Serpina for her
increasing impertinence, and intensified his resolve to take decisive action. She begins
to manipulate him, feigning misery about her downtrodden status. Uberto responds to
her complaining with mock sympathy, finally insouciantly admitting that it's been hard
on her. Figures 2.11 and 2.12 show the settings.
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Serpina and Uberto
Serpina: In somma delle somme per attendere al vostro bene io mal ne ho da ricevere? Uberto: (a Vespone) Poveretta! la senti?
Serpina: Per aver di voi cura, io, sventurata, debbo esser maltrattata? Uberto: Ma questo non va bene. Serpina: Burlate, sì! Uberto: Ma questo non conviene.
Serpina: What it all boils down to is that
no good will come to me for attending to
your needs?
Uberto: (to Vespone) Poor little thing! do
you hear her?
Serpina: For taking care of you, I, poor
wretch, must be mistreated?
Uberto: Well that's too bad.
Serpina: Mock me, yes!
Uberto: Well it's not nice.
In Pergolesi's setting, Serpina has a more melodramatic style, exemplified
by the prolongation of the sense group: io, sventurata, debbo esser maltratta (I, poor
wretch, must be maltreated). The elongation of the word io seems in particular to be an
attempt to evoke sympathy. Uberto's nonchalant asides are effectively signaled by vocal
arpeggiation. There are imitated intervallic patterns in both settings, but the difference is
that in Pergolesi's setting Uberto repeats Serpina's motifs, while in Paisiello's setting the
reverse occurs for the most part.
Uberto has the upper hand in Pergolesi's setting, with his jocular responses
to Serpina. This is signaled by the pitch of his responses - they are equal to or higher
than Serpina's phrases, and they are within the tenor range. The impression in the
exchanges is that Uberto is leading the rises in pitch of the passage. In Paisiello's setting
Serpina is responding to his insouciance with increasingly harping comments. She
appears to have the upper hand.
A noticable difference in the settings is the way in which Paisiello
emphasizes Serpina's harping responses to Uberto's insouciant comments. This is
achieved by imitated intervallic patterns and similar tonalities. Her rapid responses with
similar melodic sequence on Per aver and similar pitch and tonality on Burlate, sì!
suggest that she is keenly monitoring his mood with a view to ramping up her emotional
blackmail.
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Figure 2.11 Giovanni Battista Pergolesi
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Figure 2.12 Giovanni Paisiello
Uberto decides to take a wife: Sì, fermati, guardami
Exasperated at Serpina's impudence, Uberto tells Vespone to go out at once and find him a wife - anyone, even if she's a hag. In this way, he will spite Serpina, and be free of her domination.
This section occurs during the recitative which begins: Benissimo. Hai tu
inteso? (Great. Did you get that?) Having already provoked Uberto by not bringing his
morning chocolate, Serpina has decided to escalate the conflict, apparently with the
hope of forcing him into a decision about her future with him. She has locked the door
to the house and hidden the key so that Uberto cannot go out. Prior to this section of the
recitative, Uberto with mock resignation has told Vespone to put all his clothes back in
place because 'his mistress' has forbidden him to go out. Serpina reiterates this order
telling Vespone to hurry up and get on with it. Vespone hesitates, apparently confused
about who is giving the orders - his master or his fellow servant. Uberto sarcastically
tells Vespone to mock him. There follows a pivotal point in the libretto - Uberto, the
wealthy middle-aged comfortable bachelor suddenly decides to take a wife. His strategy
is to install a third party, bereft of the emotional baggage that exists between him and
Serpina. He believes that his wife would be able to keep Serpina in her place. This is
pivotal for the plot development because it plays into Serpina's aspirations to marry him
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herself. A translation follows.
Uberto and Serpina
Uberto (a Vespone): Sì, fermati, guardami, meravigliati, fammi de' scherni, chiamami asinone, dammi anche un mascellone, ch'io cheto mi starò, anzi la mano ancor ti bacierò ...Serpina: Che fa ... che fate? Uberto: Scostati, malvagia. Vattene, insolentaccia. In ogni conto vo' finirla. Vespone, in questo punto trovami una moglie, e sia anche un'arpia, a suo dispetto io mi voglio casare. Così non dovrò stare a questa manigolda più soggetto.
Uberto (to Vespone): Yes, stop,
stare at me, gape in wonder, poke fun at
me, call me an ass, give me a slap in the
face too, so I'll shut up ... I'll even kiss
your hand ....
Serpina: What ... what are you doing?
Uberto: Begone, wicked girl! Clear out,
insolent hussy! I want this to stop at all
costs. Vespone, at this instant go and find
me a wife, even if she's a hag, I want to get
married to spite this one. That way I'll no
longer have to be subject to this rogue.
Pergolesi's setting paints Uberto as suddenly changing to a swashbuckling
devil-may-care character, roused by circumstances out of his usual effete passivity into
sudden decisive action. The change in Uberto's character is well marked in Pergolesi's
setting. Paisiello's setting does not clearly indicate the change. Instead, Paisiello's
setting seems to continue to imply a brooding, troubled Uberto, even though he is
making the (for him) momentous life-changing decision to take a wife. The settings are
shown in Figures 2.13 and 2.14.
Both composers use vocal arpeggiation initially to signal an aside in
Uberto's thought processes, as he addresses Vespone before he proceeds towards his
decision to take a wife. Pergolesi uses very directional harmony with a parallel rising
bass/melody device in the first part of this section (bars 11-15) to imply an acceleration
in Uberto's emotional movement towards his decision to take a wife. The sequences in
the melody serve to emphasize the similarity of ideas in the phrases. The climax occurs
with his sarcastic statement that he will even kiss his manservant's hand (ancor ti
bacierò). Pergolesi highlights this by chromaticism on the word ancor. Paisiello's setting
of this part (bars 3-6), by contrast, has a descending melodic contour and figured bass
line with minor harmonies. This parallel bass and melody relationship emphasizes the
approach to the mournful climax where he asks his servant to slap his face. It is a
climax of self-pity, rather than the sarcasm implied in Pergolesi's setting. Perhaps
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Paisiello intended to slow down the perception of Uberto's thinking, indicating that he is
undecided about what to do next.
Both composers signal Serpina's astonishment at Uberto's sudden change in
behaviour by a cadenza d'inganno followed by the tense B major triad on fa-te.
Pergolesi heightens the perception of her astonishment by repetition. Both composers
use secondary dominant chains in the part where Uberto is rebuking Serpina (bars 16-19
in the Pergolesi setting and bars 9-11 in Paisiello's setting). This device creates a
perception of accelerated movement towards Uberto's command to Vespone to find him
a wife. Both composers then use a device of slowed harmonic rhythm over a pedal to
indicate Uberto's resoluteness to take a wife. Again the similarity between the settings
with regard to compositional devices used and their placement is noteworthy.
Figure 2.13 Giovanni Battista Pergolesi
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Figure 2.13 Giovanni Battista Pergolesi, Continued
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Figure 2.14 Giovanni Paisiello
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Serpina's deception begins: Io crederei
In parallel soliloquies, Serpina and Uberto blithely talk about the game they are playing. Serpina then pretends to Uberto that her game is over.
This section of recitative occurs early in the second intermezzo. Uberto is
initially unaware of Serpina's presence on the stage. Their utterances are effectively
consecutive asides. Each character's intent is similar in that they are scoffing at the
other's assumption that they have the upper hand. Their affect is a kind of bravado.
When Uberto notices Serpina, they begin a dialogue. In the last sentence of this section,
Serpina states with mock contrition that she intends to trouble Uberto no longer. After
this sentence, she tells him of her resolve to marry forthwith. The audience is aware
from the recitative preceding this section that her 'intended ' will be Vespone disguised
as Capitan Tempesta. The settings are shown in Figures 2.15 and 2.16.
Uberto and Serpina
Uberto: Io crederei, che la mia serva adesso, anzi, per meglio dir, la mia padrona, d'uscir di casa mi darà il permesso. Serpina: Ecco, guardate: senza la mia licenza pur si volle vestir. Uberto: Or sì, che al sommo giunta è sua impertinenza. Temeraria! E di nozze richiedermi ebbe ardir! Serpina: T'asconderai per ora in quella stanza e a suo tempo uscirai. Uberto: Oh qui sta ella. Facciam nostro dover. Posso o non posso? Vuole o non vuol la mia padrona bella?Serpina: Eh, signor, già per me è finito il gioco, e più tedio fra poco per me non sentirà.
Uberto: I would think that my servant girl,
or to put it better, my boss, will now grant
me permission to leave my house.
Serpina: Well, look: he's even dared to get
dressed without my permission.
Uberto: Oh yes, her impudence has gone
to the limit. What cheek! And she dared to
ask me about marriage!
Serpina (to Vespone): Hide in that room
for now, and then come out on cue.75
Uberto: Oh, there she is. We'll carry on as
we must. Can I or can't I? Does my lovely
mistress wish it or not?
Serpina: Oh sir, the game is over a far as
I'm concerned, and you won't be troubled
by me for much longer.
The most striking difference between the settings is the compositional
devices used in the asides part of the section. Paisiello sets each character's text in a
different tonality, begun with a sudden harmonic juxtaposition, although the same pitch
may be used at the exchange point. This combination of devices suggests that each of
75 This sentence is not included in Paisiello's setting of this section. The reason is that Serpina tells
Vespone to hide during the recitative Or che fatto. Paisiello changes the text in order to accomodate
the duet Donne infeste all'altrui bene, the text of which is not part of Federico's libretto.
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the characters has a different agenda and a different affect. This is consistent with the
emotional distance between them, which has been noted in earlier sections. By contrast,
Pergolesi's use of melodic and harmonic devices in the asides part suggests that the
characters have similar affects, albeit very different intents. The harmony is maintained
at points where the characters exchange. In addition, each character begins with either a
sequence similar to that with which the other finishes or on the same pitch. The
directional harmony progresses round the cycle of fifths in a subdominant direction
through the exchanges. The effect of Pergolesi's setting for the listener is a kind of tense
irony: although the musical setting seems to imply that the characters are thinking along
the same lines, the audience is already well aware of their different intents. (Serpina has
concocted a plot with Vespone, of which Uberto is blissfully unaware.) Pergolesi's
setting also points to the emotional rapport which exists between Serpina and Uberto, as
noted in earlier sections.
Figure 2.15 Giovanni Battista Pergolesi
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Figure 2.15 Giovanni Battista Pergolesi continued
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Figure 2.16 Giovanni Paisiello
Paisiello uses a slowing of harmonic rhythm from the point where the
dialogue begins (bar 12). The melody in this dialogue part contains vocal arpeggiation,
which implies a change of idea and a pause in the pacing of the action. Pergolesi uses a
change in harmonic rhythm at the point where Serpina states her resolve to stop
annoying her master (bars 23-26). In this case, the slowed harmonic rhythm and vocal
arpeggiation contrast with Uberto's preceding line, and thereby give added prominence
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to the new idea which she is about to reveal.
Serpina finds a 'fiancé': Cred'io che sì: fa d'uopo ancor ch'io pensi a' casi miei.
Serpina tells Uberto that she must look after her own interests, and that she is also getting married. Uberto is stunned at this sudden revelation.
This excerpt follows soon after the previous section. Serpina has asked
Uberto if he is definitely taking a wife. He has responded in the affirmative, asserting
that it will not be her. Serpina accepts this and states that she has to consider her own
interests, too. She then breaks the surprising news that she has also found a person to
marry.
Serpina and Uberto
Serpina: Cred'io che sì: fa d'uopo ancor ch'io pensi a' casi miei. Uberto: Pensaci, far lo dei. Serpina: Io ci ho pensato. Uberto: E ben? Serpina: Per me un marito io m'ho trovato. Uberto: Buon pro vi faccia. E lo trovaste a un tratto così già detto e fatto? Serpina: Più in un'ora venir suol che in cent'anni. Uberto: Alla buon'ora!
Serpina: I believe that's so: it's necessary
to consider my own interests, too.
Uberto: Think of them, do it.
Serpina: I already have.
Uberto: And so?
Serpina: I've found a husband for myself.
Uberto: Good for you. And to find him in
a flash, no sooner said than done?
Serpina: More can happen in an hour than
in a century.
Uberto: Good timing!
The noticeable difference in settings is that Paisiello's contains a faster harmonic rhythm
and more harmonic shifts. These occur where each character is about to introduce a new
idea. Pergolesi's harmonic progression does not deviate from the cycle of fifths in
subdominant direction, the pattern continuing unchanged through exchanges in the
dialogue. Paisiello's setting contains other devices that heighten the drama in the text,
such as the pathopoeia and chromatic approach on marito (spouse).
It is interesting to speculate about why Pergolesi's setting of this section
seems bland and unremarkable, while there are many more compositional devices
conveying dramatic manifestations in Paisiello's setting. This is after all an important
point in the plot development - Serpina revealing her ploy to put pressure on Uberto to
marry her. The contrasts between the settings are consistent with differences in the
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characters and their relationhip, which the composers have consistently implied.
Uberto's self-pitying moroseness continues in Paisiello's setting, as exemplified by the
minor tonalities on E ben? and faccia. Pergolesi's setting, with its lack of dramatic
compositional devices, paints Uberto as more affable, as if he is not fazed at first by
Serpina's revelation. This is consistent with the 'bumbling buffoon' type of character that
Pergolesi's settings have been suggesting. Paisiello's setting indicates a separation in
emotion and intent between Uberto and Serpina. Each character seems to function
independently in terms of these dramatic parameters. The distance between them is
emphasised through the drama implied in the harmonic and other compositional
devices. Pergolesi's setting, on the other hand, with similar music styles and
uninterrupted harmonic pattern, suggests an emotional closeness between them. This
aspect of their relationship is consistently emphasised right from the opening recitative
in Pergolesi's setting. By contrast, Paisiello consistently emphasizes the master-servant
class difference, emotional closeness being incompatible with a relationship based on
this situation. The settings are shown in Figures 2.17 and 2.18.
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Figure 2.17 Giovanni Battista Pergolesi76
76 There appears to be an error in bar 31 of the edition. Ma duopo should be Fa d'uopo.
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Figure 2.18 Giovanni Paisiello
Uberto is concerned about Serpina's fate: Vuol vedere il mio sposo?
Serpina offers to introduce her fiancé - a military man named 'Captain Stormy' with a terrible temper. Uberto reflects that perhaps Stormy will put her in her place. He expresses some concern for her, though.
This section is the second half of the recitative in which Uberto has
commenced with the statement: Ah! quanto mi stà male di tal risoluzione! (Ah! how
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distressed I am by such an outcome!). Prior to this Serpina successfully convinced
Uberto that her husband-to-be has a violent temper. Uberto has reflected on how she
might be mistreated, consoling himself that it's not his fault. Serpina unexpectedly asks
if Uberto would like to see her fiancé. The settings are shown in Figures 2.19 and 2.20.
Serpina and Uberto
Serpina: Vuol vedere il mio sposo?
Uberto: Sì, l'avrei caro. Serpina: Io manderò per lui; giù in strada ei si trattien. Uberto: Va'. Serpina: Con licenza. (Esce) Uberto: Or indovino chi sarà costui! Forse la penitenza farà così di quanto ella ha fatto al padrone. S'è ver, come mi dice, un tal marito la terrà fra la terra ed il bastone. Ah! poveretta lei!
Serpina: Would you like to see my fiancé?
Uberto: Yes, I'd dearly like to.
Serpina: I'll send for him; he's waiting
below in the street.
Uberto: Go.
Serpina: By your leave. (She goes)
Uberto: Now I wonder who he'll be!
Perhaps this will be her punishment for
what she's done to her master. If what she
tells me is true, such a husband will
ground her with his cane. Oh! the poor
little thing!
In this section, Pergolesi sets Serpina's announcement of her fiancé's
proximity in an unexpected minor tonality (bars 9-10: giù in strada ei si trattien). This
sounds like mock resignation to her fate - it seems to be a continuation of her emotional
blackmail. Uberto's response picks up on this mood by continuing the minor tonality.
This is one of very few places where Pergolesi settles on minor tonalities for any length
of time in the recitatives.
Paisiello's setting of this section contains nothing that implies Serpina's
intent so strongly. After the imperfect cadence on costui, a reflective pause in Uberto's
thinking is signaled by the vocal arpeggiation in bars 8-9. However, the tonality is major
throughout. The emphatic delayed cadence in the continuo after bastone sounds like a
self-righteous echo of his last phrase - as though reinforcing Uberto's statement that her
cruel husband-to-be serves her right. As before, this suggests that he has little affection
or concern for her.
In Pergolesi's setting, the mood suddenly lightens in bar 17, after a
prolonged minor passage, with the pitch highlight and cadenza d'inganno on Ah!
poveretta... Again, this seems to imply Uberto's tender feelings for Serpina. It is
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possible that Pergolesi could have notated the cadence as a cadenza tronca - that is the
dominant chord on F being simultaneous with the Bb on bastone. The dissonance this
creates could have served to emphasize the pain caused by the cane.77
It is curious that the settings of this section go against the trend - Paisiello
has used minor tonalities throughout the recitative so far to indicate Uberto's self-
pitying moroseness. It is possible that Pergolesi's intentional use of minor tonality here
is a further example of emphasis on the emotional closeness between Serpina and
Uberto. Uberto seems to ingenuously assume that her sad sounding phrase implies her
resignation to having a cruel husband. His continuation in minor tonality would imply
empathy with her.
77 As noted in Appendix 1 there is no autograph manuscript of Pergolesi's work in existence. The edition
relied on for this study was compiled in 1752.
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Figure 2.19 Giovanni Battista Pergolesi
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Figure 2.20 Giovanni Paisiello
Uberto in turmoil: Ah poveretta lei! Per altro penserei..
Uberto thinks out loud: could he marry Serpina? After all, it isn't unknown for a gentleman to marry his servant. But a stern voice within him keeps warning of the social consequences of marrying such a lowly-born woman.
This section of recitative immediately follows the end the previous section.
Serpina has announced that she is engaged to Capitan Tempesta - a military man with a
fierce temper. In reality, her fiancé is the manservant Vespone in disguise. (Serpina has
indulged in emotional blackmail.) In this recitative, Uberto weighs up the social
consequences of marrying a lowly born servant against his strong affection and
protective feelings for her. He is in a state of moral vexation. Although it is a soliloquy,
Uberto is in dialogue with his censorious superego. This is implied tongue-in-cheek at
the end of the text by the phrase e siam da capo (and we are back to the start). Each
composer uses different devices to signal the interjected comments by the superego.
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Uberto
Ah! poveretta lei! Per altro io penserei ... ma ella è serva ... (Q)
ma il primo non saresti ... dunque, la sposeresti?Basta! Eh no, non sia. Su, pensieri ribaldi, andate via! (E)
Piano, io me l'ho allevata, So poi com'ella è nata ... Eh! che sei matto! (Q)
Piano di grazia! (Q)
Eh, non pensarci affatto! Ma io ci ho passïone! ...78 E pur quella meschina ... Eh torna ... O dio! ... (Q)
E siam da capo! (Q)
Oh! che confusione!
Oh! the poor little thing!
On the other hand, I could consider ...
but she's a servant ...
well it wouldn't be the first time ...
so, would you marry her?
Enough! Oh no it mustn't be.
Away, foolish thoughts, leave me!
Calm down, I brought her up,
I know where she was born ...
Oh! you're so crazy!
Quiet, for goodness' sake!
Oh, just don't think about it!
But I have a passion for her! ...
And yet such a lowly woman..
Oh it's circular ... Oh God! ...
And we're back to the start!
Oh! what confusion!
This is the only section of the libretto which is written in verse. It may be a
reference to the libretti of opere serie, particularly those of the preceding century, whose
recitative texts consist of long tracts of verse. This is a deliberate interpolation of a
different style of text to the libretto. It appears to be an intentional poking fun at opera
seria. As noted in chapter 1, one of the aims of Neapolitan intermezzi was to provide a
contrast to the artificiality and gravitas of the serious operas into which they were
interspersed. The composers have the opportunity to exploit this difference by using a
musical setting which contrasts with the rest of the recitative.
Both composers set the section as recitatitivo accompagnato. Geiringer
(1925) comments that recitativo accompagnato in opera seria was exclusively reserved
for passages of great importance. Lazarevich (1971, p.313) notes that the function of
recitatitivo accompagnato in the intermezzo was to satirize or parody similar passages
in opere serie. Troy states that in general composers of intermezzi reserved the style for
similar situations to those in which they employed it in opere serie, namely for
references to the supernatural or "in conditions of extreme moral torment" (Troy 1979,
p. 109). It is significant that Paisiello chose the same section of the libretto as Pergolesi
78 The double dot diacritic on the 'i' in the word passïone indicate that the poet wants the vowels to retain
their full syllabic value. That is, synaeresis is not to occur. Carroli (2008) states that this is done for a
special effect. In this case, the word is pivotal to the underlying reason for Uberto's turmoil.
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to set as accompagnato. It is further evidence that Paisiello may have been well-versed
in Pergolesi's work. However, Paisiello's setting is different in style, being an
instrumental arioso with interjections of recitativo accompagnato.
Gluck may have provided a model for Paisiello's treatment here. As noted in
chapter 1, Gluck's reforms of opera also included attention to recitative. Kerman (1956)
suggests that Gluck incorporated recitative into the dramatic impetus of arias and
ensembles. Paisiello's setting of the section begins in C major and ends in G minor.
Uberto's aria Son imbrogliato io già (I'm really entangled) then begins immediately in C
major, and it has no orchestral introduction. By contrast, Pergolesi's setting of this aria
has eleven bars of introduction. It is interesting to speculate about whether Mozart drew
influence from Gluck and/or Paisiello for his setting of Susanna's recitativo
accompagnato: Giunse alfin il momento in Le Nozze di Figaro. This expressive
recitative immediately precedes her aria Deh vieni non tardar. As noted earlier, Mozart
may well have been influenced by Paisiello's operas, such as Il Barbiere di Siviglia.
The settings suggest different characters for Uberto. As in previous sections,
Pergolesi implies a buffoon-like character, albeit with some emotional depth. Pergolesi's
extraordinary instrumentation appears to be a dramatic departure from the expected. His
setting uses varied rhythms to indicate changes in Uberto's level of agitation, and
declamatory passages with tirate to signal the interjections of the supergeo. Lazarevich
(1971) suggests that the tirata was one of the earliest compositional devices by which
composers attained a dramatic effect through the use of symphonic notation. The
passages "were devoid of thematic material, but the instrumental figurations gave rise to
a thick, rich, orchestral sound" (Lazarevich 1971, p. 313).
In Pergolesi's setting the tirate seem to create a caricature of the profundity
of the censorious superego to the extent of mocking it. Troy (1979, p. 109) suggests that
eighteenth-century audiences probably associated emotive vocal gymnastics and tirate
like those in this section with much more significant crises in opere serie. The setting
opens up an opportunity for comic realism in performance. Uberto could mock the
interjections through physical gestures and changes in voice timbre and dynamics.
Paisiello's setting takes more time to create a brooding, indecisive, troubled
character. This is consistent not only with the character he has implied for Uberto in
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earlier recitative sections, but also with the stand-alone performance mode for which his
work was intended. Grove Music Online defines arioso as "a style that is songlike, as
opposed to declamatory; a short passage in a regular tempo in the middle or at the end
of a recitative" (Oxford Music Online, accessed 2011). Glixon (1985, p. 103) defines
arioso as "aria-like music, often with significant text repetition, that is set to recitative
verse". She suggests that arioso could employ melody to heighten the emotional impact
of the text in a way that recitative could not, or could by its very difference from
recitative draw attention to the text. Indeed, Glixon (ibid, p.110) states that arioso gains
its dramatic power through contrast with the more declamatory style of the adjacent
recitativo. As noted by Robinson (accessed 2011, p.4) increased warmth of melody was
one of the compositional features of Paisiello's Russian operatic works. These attributes
of contrast between instrumental arioso and declamatory passages and warmth in the
melody are apparent in Paisiello's setting of this section.
The number of syllables per line and the rhyming pattern of the text are
typical of Italian poetry of the period (Carroli, 2008). The verses are either quinari (5
syllables), settenari (7 syllables) or endecasillabi (11 syllables). Most of the verses are
settenari. The quinari and the one endecasillabo are marked in the translation box. The
natural syllabic division is often modified by phenomena related to spoken Italian.
These include: elision, hiatus, synaeresis and diaeresis.79 The application of these
phenomena means that the verses may not have literally the number of syllables
specified. When declaimed, each type of verse has a fixed stress on the penultimate
syllable. Quinari usually have another stress on the first or second syllable. Settenari
may have a second stress on any on of the first four syllables. Endecasillabi have two
other stresses, commonly on the 4th and 8th syllables.
Paisiello's setting implies that the superego is a sincere concerned persona,
to be taken seriously rather than mocked. This is achieved by straightforward directional
harmony (for example, a I-IV-V progression in G minor in bars 15-17) and by repeated
syncopated dotted rhythm chords in the orchestration - "march-like flourishes". The
79 Elision means the last vowel of a word and the first vowel of the next word are pronounced as one
syllable. Hiatus means intentionally not applying elision - that is giving each vowel its full value.
Synaeresis occurs where two vowels within the same word are pronounced as one syllable. Diaeresis
means intentionally not applying synaeresis - this is signified by two dots over the first syllable. For
example: passïone.
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latter were stylistic markers of authority in the period. Figures 2.21, 2.23 and 2.25 show
the Pergolesi setting. Figures 2.22, 2.24 and 2.26 show the Paisiello setting.
Figure 2.21 Giovanni Battista Pergolesi
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Figure 2.22 Giovanni Paisiello
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Figure 2.22 Giovanni Paisiello continued
The most notable contrast between the settings is Paisiello's instrumental
arioso style versus Pergolesi's recitativo accompagnato. While Paisiello inserts brief
declamatory passages of recitativo accompagnato, the overall effect of his setting is
song-like, with an easily singable melody, fairly regular tempo, text repetition and vocal
phrases balanced with instrumental ostinato phrases in a call-response manner. The
"march-like flourishes" in bars 15 and 16 of Paisiello's setting suggest the benevolent
authority of Uberto's superego, sounding much like the tapping of a judge's gavel.
The second part of this section (Figures 2.23 and 2.24) has a change of
mood - Uberto is trying calm himself, to be rational about the consequences of his
designs on Serpina. In Pergolesi's setting this change is marked by an harmonic shift
from D minor to E major tonality. Paisiello also uses harmonic shift via a cadenza
d'inganno in bar 18. This goes to E flat major, rather than the expected G minor. The
instrumental ostinato in bars 18 and 20 of Paisiello's setting helps to mark Uberto's
change of mood. The word matto (crazy) is emphasized metrically and by a tirata in
Pergolesi's setting. Paisiello emphasises the word by a harmonic shift from A flat major
to a G dominant seventh chord, as well as "march-like flourishes" in the orchestration.
In his setting the phrase Eh! che sei matto! begins an interjected declamatory passage in
bars 22 to 27. This signifies Uberto's struggle with his superego. Paisiello maintains a C
minor tonality throughout this passage until this part ends with an emphatic cadence
after affatto (don't think about it at all). In this way, the grave sincerity of the superego
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is emphasized. Pergolesi by contrast sticks to major tonality, apart from a brief touching
on A minor in bars 14-15, ending on G major.
Figure 2.23 Giovanni Battista Pergolesi
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Figure 2.24 Giovanni Paisiello
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In the last part of this section, Pergolesi implies Uberto's conflicting
emotions by alternating between major and minor tonalities (Figure 2.25). Beginning on
the unexpected G minor in bar 17, he goes to F major in bar 19, quickly changing to F
minor, then finally to a cadence in C major. The final two phrases, Oh Dio! E siam da
capo.. and Oh! Che confusione are "reciprocal phrases", emphasising that Uberto is
thinking in circles.
Paisiello marks the change in mood in this part by an abrupt shift from C
minor to D major in bar 29 (Figure 2.26). This tonality becomes the dominant of G
minor, into which this part finally settles. Paisiello emphasizes Uberto's first person
statement ma io (but I..) by the crotchet rest in bar 28. The pause breaks up the sense
group, drawing attention to Uberto's internal wrestling. The syncopated figures in the
violins in bars 29 and 31 also create a sense of agitation. The word passïone (passion)
receives emphasis through notating each of the internal syllables (diaeresis). The
ascending instrumental ostinato sequences (bars 29 and 31) over a stationary bass pedal
imply a mounting emotional turmoil. The harmony is without direction in bars 29 to 32.
Having shifted to D dominant 7th in bar 29, it then returns to C minor in bar 32. This is
an example of Dubitatio - the intentionally ambiguous harmonic progression signifying
confusion. It contrasts with the clear harmonic direction of bars 33 to 35: I6-IV-V-I
progression in G minor. This clear harmonic direction and the "march-like flourishes" in
bars 33 and 34 signify the authoritative intrusion of the superego.
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Figure 2.25 Giovanni Battista Pergolesi
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Figure 2.26 Giovanni Paisiello
The overall effect of the settings of this passage of verse is markedly
different. Pergolesi's setting implies a more compelling crescendo of emotional turmoil
in Uberto. He achieves this by a fast harmonic rhythm, rapidly alternating major and
minor harmonies, and dramatic if not melodramatic tirate. Paisiello's setting also
implies emotional turmoil, but perhaps more subtly, with a brooding, troubled mood
implied by the minor tonalities, and at a slower pace. The instrumental arioso with
interjected recitativo accompagnato passages seems to allow more time and space for
the listener to perceive Uberto's state of mind. The listener is drawn into his frame of
mind gradually, albeit inexorably.
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The Dénouement - Serpina becomes Mistress: L'ha detto ... Sì, signore.
Serpina has told Uberto that 'Captain Stormy' insists that unless Uberto pays him a very large dowry, he must marry her himself. Uberto says that if Fate intends for him to marry Serpina, he will do so. She asks for his right hand to seal the betrothal in Stormy's presence. Serpina reveals Stormy's identity. Finally, Serpina and Uberto are happily betrothed.
This is the final section of the last recitative in the libretto. It contains two
"punch lines", one for Uberto and one for Serpina. Serpina has introduced her fiancé
Capitan Tempesta, who is really Vespone in disguise. In accordance with the ruse they
have concocted, Tempesta has supposedly told Serpina that unless Uberto gives him a
very large dowry, Uberto himself must marry her. When Uberto scoffs at this, Tempesta
feigns fury and begins to draw his sword. Uberto quickly pacifies him. He then delivers
the momentous statement that if fate has decreed he must marry Serpina, he will do so.
A short-lived altercation occurs when Serpina reveals Vespone's disguise as Tempesta.
This is quickly smoothed over, and Serpina finally delivers her statement that she has
risen from maidservant to mistress. This section of recitative contains the climax of the
action, both physical and emotional, in the recitative of the libretto. The settings are
shown in Figures 2.27 and 2.28.
Uberto and Serpina
Uberto: L'ha detto ... sì, signore. Eh! non s'incomodi, che giacché per me vuol così il destino, or io la sposerò. Serpina: Mi dia la destra in sua presenza.
Uberto: Sì. Serpina: Viva il padrone. Uberto: Va ben così? Serpina: E viva ancor Vespone. Uberto: Ah! ribaldo! tu sei? E tal inganno ... lasciami... Serpina: E non occorre più strepitar. Ti son già sposa, il sai. Uberto: È ver, fatta me l'hai: ti venne buona. Serpina: E di serva divenni io già padrona.
Uberto: He did say it ... yes, sir. Eh! Settle
down, if this is what Fate intends for me,
now I will marry her.
Serpina: Give me your right hand in his
presence.
Uberto: Yes.
Serpina: Long live the Master.
Uberto: (to Tempesta) OK now?
Serpina: And long live Vespone!
Uberto: Ah! You rotter! It's you? What a
trick ... let go of me ...
Serpina: And no more nonsense. I'm your
betrothed now, you know it.
Uberto: True, you've done for me: good
has come your way.
Serpina: And from a servant, I've become
the mistress.
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Figure 2.27 Giovanni Battista Pergolesi
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Figure 2.28 Giovanni Paisiello
The composers treat this section very differently. Pergolesi's compositional
devices almost suggest that nothing unexpected is happening. This seems to be in
keeping with his take on the libretto that there is a longstanding emotional closeness
between Serpina and Uberto, and that their union is almost inevitable. Indications of
their emotional involvement include the metabasis, transgressio in bars 52 and 60 and
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the similarity of their tonalities and harmonic direction. Harmonic shifts occur only in
relation to Uberto's interactions with Tempesta/Vespone (bars 53 and 60), and Serpina's
gentle admonition telling him that she is now his betrothed (bar 63). The latter, with the
tense B major triad, is the only clue that something out-of-the-ordinary has just
happened. Uberto's punchline che giacché per me vuol così il destino, or io la sposerò
does not receive any special treatment. It is almost as if it is a foregone conclusion.
Serpina's final punchline receives very strong emphasis with the anabasis, ascensus.
The latter receives emphatic reinforcement by the placement of the continuo cadence on
beats one and two of the following bar. In common with a similar device in the section
Adunque perch'io son serva, the setting of this line is a musical metaphor for Serpina's
ascent up the social ladder.
In Paisiello's setting, Uberto's punchline is emphasized by two harmonic
shifts (bars 2 and 4). These are shown in the following diagram. This strongly suggests
that something unexpected and out-of-the ordinary is happening.
Serpina's final statement is highlighted by metrical emphasis and the use of a harmonic
device. Paisiello puts the emphasized syllables in both serva and padrona on the
strongest metrical positions, whereas Pergolesi only does this for serva. This seems to
be in keeping with Paisiello's stronger emphasis on social class differences between the
protagonists in comparison with Pergolesi. Paisiello places a V 4/2 chord on the
accented syllable of the word divenni (I have become). The following diagram shows a
comparison of the metrical positions of the text and compositional devices.
The similarity in tonality, rhythm and intervallic patterns in the composers' settings of
Serpina's final sentence is noteworthy. It is further evidence for the supposition that
Paisiello had an intimate knowledge of Pergolesi's work. However, the similarity in
these attributes may draw attention to the differences in metrical accentuation and
harmonic treatment in Paisiello's setting.
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Chapter 3: Conclusion
My aim in this study has been to investigate systematically how
compositional devices in recitative settings can create and convey manifestations of
drama. Addison (1995, p. 7) suggests that an opera director "must never relinquish the
conviction that the music is a reflection of what is happening on stage". He sums up this
concept in the following quote:
In short, the director should pay the composer the compliment of assuming that every note, every
choice of orchestration, every expression mark, rhythm, melody, and harmonic progression is
part of his response to the thoughts, emotions, and/or actions of the characters in the drama.
A composer of vocal music superimposes a second language, namely
music, on the text he or she is using. The dramatic potential of the resultant combination
of two languages depends on the composer's concept of music's capabilities, on the
ways in which previous composers have combined text and music, on the prevailing
beliefs and expectations of his or her culture and on the traditions behind the text itself
(Tomlinson 1982, p. 565).
Music on its own can convey emotion, but it can neither fully indicate the
intent and psychological action occurring within characters, nor place an interpretation
on the actions occurring on the stage. It takes a combination of music with another
medium, such as words, to clearly define the thought or action which the music may
suggest. Conversely, the superimposition of music clarifies ambiguities in the text and
adds meaning to what can be understood from the words alone (Addison 1995, p. 5).
Opera is generally accepted to be 'larger than life'. Stage movements,
gestures and interactions between characters are often exaggerated responses to the flux
of emotions from the characters. Behaviour that might be considered ridiculous in real
life is perfectly appropriate in conveying the drama of the musical theatre of opera.
Recitative, I believe, is a heightened form of the language used in an opera libretto. In
analysing the recitative from two settings of an identical libretto, I have tried to
investigate whether the superimposition of music on the text can result in creation of
two different theatrical works. The pertinent questions which I have attempted to
answer in this study are: Have Pergolesi and Paisiello told a different story by the way
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in which they have applied music to the same words? And, if so, how did they use the
compositional devices at their disposal to achieve this?
In order to effectively execute a role, a performer needs to have in their
mind a clear interpretation of the character they are portraying. This includes the
character's emotions, intents and desires. The performer needs to be cognizant of how
these dramatic manifestations form a continuum in the unfolding drama of an opera.
Stage directors, who may not have a strong background in music theory, may benefit
from an understanding of how compositional devices embedded in the score imply these
dramatic parameters within the characters. They also need an awareness of how musical
settings affect the dramatic impulse of a work - that is the unfolding, pacing, increase
and decrease of tension and sense of forward movement of the action, both physical and
psychological. A practical application of the methodology used in the study could be to
assist performers, stage directors, conductors and dramaturgs in the realisation of
operatic works.
The first task for a director in staging La Serva Padrona, or indeed any
opera, is to ascertain the interpretation put on the drama by the composer. This includes
formulating the characters' background, their emotional states, their relationship and
their intents (Addison 1995, p.35). This will inform performance of the work not only in
terms of acting and musical performance, but also for stage movements, costuming and
set design. Addison (1995, p. 33) notes that Federico's libretto of La Serva Padrona
provides little information about the background and ages of Serpina and Uberto, or
about the relationship between them. Uberto could be any age from "fortyish" to
"sixtyish". He could be wealthy or not. Serpina, though usually assumed to be in her
teens, could be any age up to the late 30s. She could be genuinely fond of him, owing to
a long term father-daughter type of relationship. Alternatively, she could be a young
woman who is attracted to older men. At the other extreme, she could be a desperate
ageing spinster, unmarriageable on the open market, determined to secure a life of ease
and status, with no real regard for Uberto, even prepared to drive him to an early grave
in order to inherit his fortune. There is also ambiguity about Serpina's strategy with
regards to her provocative behaviour (Addison 1995, p. 34). Is she trying to bypass the
formal master-servant, youth-age, barrier with the aim of engendering a more intimate
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relationship? Is she trying to worry and befuddle him, setting the scene for him to make
rash, impulsive decisions? Ambiguities in the libretto give ample scope for composers
to use compositional devices to imply their choice of these manifestations of drama.
Nevertheless, there will always remain scope for interpretation of what a given
combination of music and text, such as occurs in the recitatives, implies.
In comparing the settings of several sections of recitative where pivotal plot
or character developments occur, I have drawn conclusions about Pergolesi's and
Paisiello's interpretations of the drama. Their interpretations of the two protagonsists,
Serpina and Uberto, are clearly different. While my inferences from the recitative
settings are not the only ones that could be made, I believe that it is appropriate to state
how I as a director, conductor or dramaturg would use inferences made through the
analytical method in this study to inform performance of the two works.
Pergolesi's Uberto is an affable, impulsive buffoon. These traits can be
inferred in the recitatives right from the beginning. In his opening recitative (Figures 2.1
and 2.3), his frustration with Serpina's tardiness is set in major tonalities. The setting of
this recitative indicates superficial annoyance, and we are still left with the impression
of a buoyant character, puzzled as to why he has been put out. His reactions to Serpina's
provocative behaviour are those of a good-humoured confident man, naively unaware of
Serpina's guile. This is particularly apparent in his patronising ebullient sarcasm in
response to Serpina's manipulative efforts in the recitative Insomma delle somme
(Figure 2.11). Here, the impression is that he believes he is on top of the situation, not
overly fazed by her behaviour. This is signaled by the pitch of his responses. Similarly,
the shift in tessitura in bar 13 of the recitative Sì, fermati when Uberto is stating that his
manservant can keep him quiet, indicates a jocular attitude to the situation (Figure
2.13). His impulsive decision to take a wife of any sort is clearly marked in bar 19 by a
sustained shift to first inversion D major harmony from the point where he commands
Vespone to find him a wife. His good-natured gullibility is apparent in his ingenuous
responses to Serpina's surprise revelation that she has found a husband for herself
(Figure 2.17). The bland melodic and harmonic structure of the setting of this section
indicate that he is at least superficially unfazed by Serpina's revelation. His quick mood
changes and ingenuousness are apparent when he sends Serpina to bring her fiancé to
Page 111 of 125
meet him (Figure 2.19). Initially, he echoes Serpina's minor tonality, but then quickly
changes to major tonality, consoling himself that her ill-tempered husband may provide
the discipline she needs. His precipitate annoyance is apparent in his explosive
response to the revelation of Vespone's disguise (Figure 2.27, bar 60). In the recitativo
accompagnato: Per altro penserei Pergolesi clearly emphasizes Uberto's quick,
impulsive mood changes. This is achieved by rhythmic changes, interspersed
declamations, tirate, fast harmonic rhythm and harmonic juxtapositions. An obvious
interpretation of this recitative is that Uberto is prepared to flout the cautions of his
superego. His statement that he will marry Serpina after Tempesta has threatened him,
with the major tonality and lack of dramatic devices, maintains the impression of a man
who, without too much consideration or calculation, is prepared to take what he wants
(Figure 2.27). His quick pacification after the revelation of Vespone's disguise and his
good-humoured capitulation to Serpina reinforce the sense that he is a likeable
impulsive buffoon.
Paisiello's Uberto is a neurotic, troubled, self-pitying, unassertive man.
There are occasional flashes where Paisiello's setting implies some decisiveness, but
overall his Uberto comes over as indecisive, grudgingly accepting the control of
circumstance. One decisive moment is that where Uberto states that he's going to throw
off his shackles (Figure 2.10): march-like flourishes, ascending sequence and dotted
rhythms suggest decisiveness. This, however is an exception. The frequent use of minor
tonalities, fast harmonic rhythms, harmonic shifts and tense chords all serve to connote
his troubled nature. These attributes are apparent in his opening recitative (Figure 2.2).
The descending figured bass and melodic contour towards O flemma benedetta in bar 6
imply a passive man, overwhelmed by circumstances. The same device is used in Figure
2.14 where Uberto with grim sarcasm says that his manservant can tell him to keep
quiet (bars 2-6). The minor chord on in buon'ora (Figure 2.4, bar 11) is telling. He
sounds unconfident of his ability to do something about Serpina's impertinent
behaviour. Similarly, the minor chords on E ben and faccia in Figure 2.18 suggest a
resigned acceptance of fate. The setting of his decision to take a wife (Figure 2.14, bars
12-14) again sounds like a passive acceptance of fate. The rhythmic stress and
elongation of the word anche suggests that even marrying a harpy would be a lesser evil
Page 112 of 125
than being subject to Serpina's dominance. In the recitativo accompagnato: Ah
poveretta lei the warnings of Uberto's superego are meant to be taken seriously (Figures
2.22, 2.24 and 2.26). This is evident in the march-like flourishes and strongly
directional harmony. Even when he does express his passion for Serpina, this is quickly
overturned by his censorious superego (bars 32-35). Again, he is passively submitting to
fate. Uberto's 'punchline' in the final recitative section: "if fate has declared that I must
marry her, I will do so" is set with unexpected harmonic shifts, again suggesting that
fate is directing his actions (Figure 2.28 bars 3-5). This setting of the punchline has
none of the tongue-in-cheek second meaning that is in the Pergolesi setting.
Pergolesi's Serpina is full of youthful enthusiasm. She knows what she
wants, and is open about her intentions to get it. She has a generosity of spirit, never
intending to really hurt Uberto, while manoeuvering him into a situation that is mutually
beneficial. Her forthright declamation of her desire to become the mistress of the house,
with the harmonic and melodic devices implying a climbing of the social ladder,
exemplifies the exposition of her character (Figure 2.7). Her brash melodrama in
Insomma delle somme.. implies an openly playful manipulator (Figure 2.11). Similarly,
her statement that the game is over and that she won't trouble Uberto much longer, is
rendered melodramatic by slowed harmonic rhythm and vocal arpeggiation (Figure
2.15, bars 23-26). Her statement that her fiancé is nearby, waiting to meet Uberto
(Figure 2.19) is set with an unexpected minor modulation, giving the statement added
pathos. Her final triumphal statement in Figure 2.27 that she has succeeded in her aim to
rise from servant to mistress is a playful recapitulation, with similar compositional
devices, of the statement of her ambition in the first recitative.
Paisiello's Serpina is calculating, shrewd, almost a harpy. She has little real
concern for Uberto's feelings or welfare, concentrating on manipulating him at every
turn. The statement of her ambition to rise from servant to mistress has several
harmonic shifts, suggesting that it is not so much a forthright statement as a shrewd
reflection on her current position and where she wants to be (Figure 2.8). Her harping
responses to Uberto's sarcasm are exemplified in Figure 2.12. These, with minor
tonalities and harmonic shifts, are serious attempts at emotional blackmail, as opposed
to the playful melodrama of Pergolesi's Serpina. The melodic beauty of her aria Donne
Page 113 of 125
vaghe i studi nostri, directed towards the ladies in the audience, appears to suggest a
softer side to her character. However, in it she is stating that she wishes to use the
studied charms of her gender to procure the heart of an old man and to lead him towards
her ultimate goal. In the final recitative, Serpina's statement does sound like triumphal
gloating that she has risen from servant to mistress. This is achieved by the strong
emphases on both serva and padrona (Figure 2.28).
The composers have a different 'take' on the relationship between Uberto
and Serpina. Pergolesi's settings indicate a warmth, an emotional closeness. While
historically this may have been of a father-daughter nature, it has developed into a
romantic attachment. The latter clearly troubles Uberto, particularly with its social
consequences, but not so much that he is not prepared to override his misgivings. This is
evident in the devices which suggest scoffing at the admonitions of his superego in the
recitativo accompagnato: Per altro penserei (Figures 2.21, 2.23 and 2.25). Other
attributes of their relationship are evident in a number of compositional devices. In the
section Gran fatto ..., Uberto emphasizes the tenderness for Serpina through rhythmic
devices (Figure 2.3). Motivic exchanges without changes in harmonic direction (Figure
2.12), and similar music styles in dialogue recitatives (Figure 2.15 and Figure 2.19) also
suggest an emotional rapport.
Paisiello's settings indicate a distance between Serpina and Uberto, an
aloofness. This relates to their personalities and intents. Uberto is too self-absorbed to
have much romantic interest in her. He is genuinely concerned about the social
consequences, and does not wish to override his superego's admonitions. Serpina has
divined his character, and realising the challenge of her task, takes every opportunity to
confuse and goad him, steering him towards a precipitate decision to marry her. This
emotional distance is evident particularly in harmonic devices. There are several
instances in dialogue recitatives where each character's statement suddenly shifts to a
different harmony (Figures 2.16, 2.18). Uberto's predominant connection with Serpina is
that of master and servant. This is evident in the rhythmic devices in Figures 2.2 and
2.4, where s er va is given strong metrical emphasis. It is also manifest by the absence of
devices like similar music styles and harmonic progressions through exchanges in
dialogue that would indicate an emotional rapport (Figure 2.20).
Page 114 of 125
In the twenty-first century, we are remote from the period when recitativo
semplice and recitativo accompagnato were fresh, innovative and imaginative vehicles
for the communication of drama through a synergetic combination of words and music.
We cannot know how recitative sounded or was actually performed in the eighteenth
century, and even if we could, we would be listening to it with ears which have heard
several subsequent genres that involve a combination of music and words, as well as
very different harmonic and melodic vocabularies. We are also in a vastly different
social and cultural milieu. As a result, much of the subtlety of the form is almost
certainly lost on the modern listener or performer. In this study I have aimed to develop
a methodology for understanding how composers use music compositional devices to
create drama in recitative, according to their interpretation of opera libretti. Through
detailed comparative analysis of the musical settings of the recitatives in two
eighteenth-century operatic works with an identical libretto, I have aimed to
demonstrate that compositional devices in recitative can have a potent effect on the
manifestations of drama immanent in the libretto. I have attempted this search for
dramatic values in the notation of recitative, informed by study of its history and
development up to the late eighteenth century, and by an understanding of the context in
which the works were written and performed. The taxonomy of compositional devices
used in the study may be useful for an appreciation of the musical vocabulary and
dramatic functions of recitative in eighteenth-century Italian comic operatic works. I
believe that an understanding of these devices may inform performance, and that the
study may be a useful addition to the available information on performance practice. My
hope is that this type of analysis may help persons who listen to these works or who are
involved in their performance, to understand the composers' interpretations of characters
and their actions more fully.
Page 115 of 125
Appendix 1: Notes on scores used in the study
There is no autograph manuscript score in existence for Pergolesi's setting
of La Serva Padrona. The most authoritative score I was able to access for Pergolesi's
setting is the mini-score referenced as follows:
Pergolesi, Giovanni Pattista. La Serva Padrona = Die Magd als Herrin =
La servante maitresse. Foreword by K. Geiringer (Philharmonia Partituren ; no. 84
Mini score, Wien: Universal Edition, 1925)
This score is based on an edition compiled after a performance in Paris in
1752. The Werner Icking Music Archive website provides public domain scores based
on this mini-score. These are available at URL:
http://icking-music-archive.org/ByComposer/Pergolesi.php
In the study, I have used excerpts from the portable document format scores
on this website. I have checked them for consistency with the mini-score.
There is only one printed edition of Paisiello's setting:
Paisiello, Giovanni. La Serva Padrona (1781) Intermezzo comico in due
parti. (Pro Musica Camerata, Warsaw: Edition, 1993)
This edition is based on a complete manuscript preserved in the music
library of the Lancut Palace in Poland. In the foreward to the edition, Marta Pielech
suggests that the manuscript is probably a copy made soon after the first performance in
St Petersburg. It provides a realised keyboard part for the recitatives, but does not
indicate bass figures. I have used as an additional authority a microfiche of a score in a
library in Paris:
Paisiello, Giovanni, 1740-1816. Intermezzo in Musica La Serva Padrona
[microform] del Sig. Giovanni Paisiello.(Microfilm. Paris : Bibliothèque Nationale de
France. 1 microfilm reel : negative : 35 mm, 19--?)
The microfiche used was made from one of four manuscript copies held in
the Bibliothèque Nationale de France. It is not stated when the copies were made, but
none is an autograph manuscript. Scoccimarro (2004) notes that the Österreichische
Page 116 of 125
Nationalbibliothek, Musiksammlung in Vienna holds what is considered to be the
autograph copy of the score. The title page contains a dedication to the Empress
Catherine of Russia signed by Paisiello, dated 30 August 1781. Scoccimarro maintains
that this copy would be the closest score to the premiere performance. I was not able to
access this manuscript for the purposes of this study.
The microfilm copy used for this study has no dynamics, accentuations, bass
figures etc. I have made the excerpts in this study based on these two sources, using
"Sibelius First" notation software. Downes (1961) notes that keyboard harmonies,
though almost never indicated in early Classic period scores, are usually obvious from
the voice part. I have inserted the bass figures in the excerpts in the study based on the
two sources.
Page 117 of 125
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Sound Recordings
Giovanni Battista Pergolesi, La Serva Padrona. Mariella Adani, S. Leonardo Monreale,
Uberto. Pomeriggi Musicali del Teatro Nuovo di Milano, Ettore Gracis,
conductor. LP; (Nonesuch Records, New York H-71043, 1961).
Giovanni Battista Pergolesi, La Serva Padrona. Maddalena Bonifaccio, Serpina.
Siegmund Nimsgern, Uberto. Collegium aureum. LP; (EMI Electrola
GmbH, Köln IC065-99 749A, 1969).
Giovanni Battista Pergolesi, La Serva Padrona. Katalin Farkas, Serpina. Jozsef Gregor,
Uberto. Pal Nemeth, Conductor. Capella Savaria. CD; (Hungaraton, 1986)
Giovanni Paisiello, La Serva Padrona. Cinzia Forte, S. Antonio Abete, Uberto. La
Cetra, Attilio Cremonesi, conductor. CD; (Harmonia Mundi, Basel.
Recorded in the Théâtre de Poissy, on 5th and 6th May, 2006)
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