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Inmanypartsoftheworldsnakesareeatenbycertainpeo-ple.thosethataremostsoughtafterarethelargerspecies

suchasthepythonsandtheirrelations.AccordingtoreceiptsgiventoairmenstrandedinFareasternjungles,allsnakesareedible. Charlesm.bogert,CuratorofReptilesattheAmericanmuseumofnaturalhistory,newYork,alsostatesthatthemeatofanysnakeisedible,thoughitisverydoubtfulwhethermanypeoplehaveeverbotheredtoprepareanybutthelargerspecies,anddoubtswhetheranyworldsurveyofthissubjecthasbeenmade.hestatesthatnorthAmericanIndiansoccasionally

includedsnakesintheirdiet,andhehassometimesseendriedsnakemeatinthemarketinChinatown,newYork,thoughthismaybeforitssupposedmedicinalqualities. AsiA.theChineseareprobablythegreatestsnake-eatersthoughothersputmexicanIndiansandcertainAfricansascloseseconds.Amissionary,mr.thompson,withalongexpe-rienceinChinahassaidthathehaseatensnakemeatinChinaandfounditsflavourgood.theIndianpython,Python molu-rus,isactuallysentfromIndiatoChinaforfoodpurposes,andiseateninhongKongwhereitistobeseenintheshops.pythonmeatthereissaidtobegoodanditspricehigherthanthatofbeef.thehugeReticulatedpython,Python reticulatus,oftheularsawaRendamorularDanauofthemalayswhichoccasionallyreachesalengthofoverthirtyfeet,iseateninvari-ouspartsofmalayaandelsewhere,e.g.,byChineseandotherpeoplesofs.e.Asia.j.WatersdescribeshowtheReticulatedpythonoften finds itsway intoChinesemeatmarkets inmalaya.thebloodpython,Python curtus,isalsoeateninpartsofs.e.AsiathoughitisnotsopopularasfoodasthemuchlargerReticulatedpython.thebloodpython,knowntothemalaysasularsawatikusreachesalengthofonlyninefeet.

H i s t o r i c a l P e r s P e c t i v e

IRCF REPTILES & AMPHIBIANS • VOL15, NO 4 • DEC 2008 189TABLE OF CONTENTS

T A B L E O F C O N T E N T S

F E A T U R E A R T I C L E S

Chasing Bullsnakes (Pituophis catenifer sayi) in Wisconsin: On the Road to Understanding the Ecology and Conservation of the Midwest’s Giant Serpent ...................... Joshua M. Kapfer 190

The Shared History of Treeboas (Corallus grenadensis) and Humans on Grenada: A Hypothetical Excursion ............................................................................................................................Robert W. Henderson 198

R E S E A R C H A R T I C L E S

The Texas Horned Lizard in Central and Western Texas ....................... Emily Henry, Jason Brewer, Krista Mougey, and Gad Perry 204 The Knight Anole (Anolis equestris) in Florida

.............................................Brian J. Camposano, Kenneth L. Krysko, Kevin M. Enge, Ellen M. Donlan, and Michael Granatosky 212

C O N S E R V A T I O N A L E R T

World’s Mammals in Crisis ............................................................................................................................................................. 220 More Than Mammals ...................................................................................................................................................................... 223 The “Dow Jones Index” of Biodiversity ........................................................................................................................................... 225

H U S B A N D R Y

Captive Care of the Central Netted Dragon ....................................................................................................... Shannon Plummer 226

P R O F I L E

Kraig Adler: A Lifetime Promoting Herpetology ................................................................................................ Michael L. Treglia 234

C O M M E N T A R Y

The Turtles Have Been Watching Me ........................................................................................................................ Eric Gangloff 238

B O O K R E V I E W

Threatened Amphibians of the World edited by S.N. Stuart, M. Hoffmann, J.S. Chanson, N.A. Cox, R. Berridge, P. Ramani, and B.E. Young .............................................................................................................. Robert Powell 243

CONSERVATION RESEARCH REPORTS: Summaries of Published Conservation Research Reports ................................. 245 NATURAL HISTORY RESEARCH REPORTS: Summaries of Published Reports on Natural History ................................. 247 NEWBRIEFS ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 248 EDITORIAL INFORMATION ..................................................................................................................................................... 251 FOCUS ON CONSERVATION: A Project You Can Support ............................................................................................... 252

Front Cover. Shannon Plummer.Totat et velleseque audant mo estibus inveliquo velique rerchil erspienimus, quos accullabo. Ilibus aut dolor apicto invere pe dolum fugiatis maionsequat eumque moditia erere nonsedis ma sectiatur ma derrovitae voluptam, as quos accullabo.

Back Cover. Michael KernTotat et velleseque audant mo

estibus inveliquo velique rerchil erspienimus, quos accullabo. Ilibus

aut dolor apicto invere pe dolum fugiatis maionsequat eumque

moditia erere nonsedis ma sectia-tur ma derrovitae voluptam, as

IRC

F

REPTILES & AMPHIBIANSC O N S E R V AT I O N A N D N AT U R A L H I S T O R Y

WWW.IRCF.oRg/ReptIlesAnDAmphIbIAnsjouRnAl

snakes as Food for ManF.R.Irvine1

79Copyright©2013.F.R.Irvine.Allrightsreserved.

1ReprintedfromtheBritish Journal of Herpetology1:183–189(1954).spelling,punctuation,italics,andcitationsasintheoriginalarticle.

Anightmarketintouliu,southwesterntaiwan,atwhichstejneger’spitvipers(Viridovipera stejnegeri stejnegeri)areshowntospectatorsandthenkilled.thecarcassesareplacedinstrongalcohol,andthe“tonic”isbottledandsold(insert:stegneger’spitviper).photographs©gerrutnorval.

AlthoughnowlistedinCItesAppendixI,Indianpythons(Python molu-rus)oncewereregularlyexportedtoChinaforuseasfood.photograph©l.leegrismer.

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AvendorinCàmauprovince,vietnam(mekongDelta)sellingburmesepython(Python bivittatus)steaks.notethelivesnakeinthecage.photograph©l.leegrismer.

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ItiskeptincaptivitybyanimaldealersinsingaporeforsaletoZoologicalgardens,andwhetherthisspeciesisalsousedasfoodisnotstated,thoughitisimplied,byburkill(4).Watershoweverdescribesthissnakeasafatlittlefellowwhichwill

alsobefoundonthe(food)market.Dr.malcolmsmithstatesthatalthoughitiscommonlysaidthatthepython(probablytheIndianpythonPython molurus)andtheRatsnakePtyas mucosus2—(Zamenis),areeateninthailand,wherehelivedfortwentyyears,heneversawthemeateninthetown,thoughitispossiblethattheyareeatenbythecountrypeoplethereintimesofscarcity.logan(7),writingover100yearsago,describesseveralsnakesasbeingeatenbyanaboriginaltribeinmalayaandhementionstheuseoftheirfatbyaseagypsyclan,oransabimba,whokilled,andateanyjungleanimaltheyfound.Dr.malcolmsmithdescribeshavingonceseenalargesea-snakebeingpreparedasfoodbytheChineseinhainan,andhebelievesthatagoodmanysnakesareeatenbytheChinesepoor.InW.Chinathepeopleareverycarefulto“bone”snakesbeforeeatingthem(sewell). j.D.RomerhaslivedseveralyearsinhongKonganddescribestheuseofvariousspeciesofsnakesfroms.e.AsiaasfoodintheColony,whereheobservedthreeshopswhich

heavilyexploitedforskinsandfood,theinternationaltradeinReticulatedpythons(Python reticulatus)isregulatedunderCItesAppendixII.photograph©bjornlardner.

2nowPtyas mucosa(thechangeintheendingofthespecificepithetisaconse-quenceofreevaluatingthegenderofthegenericnamewithwhichthespecificnamemustagree).

Althoughsmallerthanpythons,orientalRatsnakes(Ptyas mucosa)areeateninmanypartsofsoutheasternAsia.thissnakewasphotographedattheguangdongmarketinsouthernChina.photograph©houmian.

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specialisedinthesaleofsnakesforfood.Recently,henoticedinoneoftheseshops,threespecimensofElaphe moellendorffi 3whichhadbeensentfromsouthChinaasfood.mr.Romerpurchased these three snakes andpresented them to thelondonZoo,wheretheywerenewtothecollection.manyotherspeciesoflivesnakesareimportedinlargenumbersintotheColonyfromsouthernChinawhenthecoldweatherstarts(october-november);theselargeimportationsdonotoccurinthehotseason.manysnakesfromtheseshopsgototheChineserestaurantsasfoodorareusedinpreparing“snakewine”andothermedicines.thefollowingspeciesarecommonlyencounteredintheshops:—theIndianCobra,Naja naja,(a“spitting”varietyofwhichoccursinmalaya),theKingCobra,Naja hannah 4,occasionally, thebanded

Krait,Bungarus fasciatus,common,theRayedorCopperheadRacer, Elaphe radiata, common, the greater Indian Ratsnake,Ptyas mucosus,andthelesserIndianRatsnake,Ptyas

3moellendorf’sRatsnake.4nowplacedinthegenusOphiophagus.

KingRatsnakes(Elaphe carinata carinata;top)arenotprotectedintaiwan.nevertheless,theownerofasnake-meatstoreinChiayiCity,southwest-erntaiwanwasunwillingtoallowphotographsofsnakescollectedfromthewildforfood(thelowerphotographwastakensurreptitiously).localtaiwanesealsoconsumethebile,whichismixedwithstrongalcohol.photographs©gerrutnorval.

brongersma’sshort-tailedpython(Python brongersmai)wasuntilrecentlyconsidered a subspecies of the blood python (P. curtus). like otherpythons,internationaltradeinskinsandliveanimalsisregulatedunderCItesAppendixII.photograph©l.leegrismer.

moellendorff’sorRed-headedRatsnakes(Elaphe moellendorffi)areamongmanyspeciesimportedinlargenumbersfromsouthernChinatohongKong,wheretheyareservedasfoodorusedinpreparing“snakewine”andothermedicines.photograph©RexKnight(www.ratsnakes.com).

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korros,common,andoccasionallytheIndianpython,Python molurus.theRed-tailedRacer,Elaphe oxycephala,iseaten

occasionally inpartsofmalaya, as is theelephant-trunksnakeorFilesnake,Acrocordus javanicus.

KingCobras(Ophiophagus hannah)werefoundoccasionallyinChinesemeatmarkets.generally,fangswereremovedormouthssewnshut.photograph©p.gowrishankar.

Despitetheirlethalvenom,bandedKraits(Bungarus fasciatus)oncewerecommoninChinesemarkets,wheretheywerehandledroutinelybyworkers.photograph©l.leegrismer.

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mr.e.esmondofhongKongstatesthatthegall-blad-derofsnakesisgreatlyvaluedforitsmedicinalqualities.Itistakenforageneraltonic,andisswallowedraw.manysnakeshavethegall-bladderremovedandthisisthensoldseparately,thesnakesthemselvesbeingthensoldasfood.snakescom-pletewithgall-bladderfetchafarhigherpricethanthosethathavehadthemremoved.healsostatesthatinhongKongthecoldseasonlastsfromoctobertojanuaryandduringthistimesnakesareeatenastheyarefatandeasytohandle.Incertainrestaurantsduringthistimesnakemeatisalwaysonthemenu,butmaybeofanyspecies.onoccasionsspecialfeasts,orsnakebanquets,areheldwhereonlysnakemeatisserved.themaindishatthesebanquetsconsistsofthreetofivedifferentspeciesofsnakes,andinthisinstancethespeciesarenamed.AnotherexpensivebanquetiscalledtheDragonandtigerbanquet.thisconsistsofCivetCat5andsnakemeat.WhenCivetCatsareunobtainableordinarydomesticcatshavebeenknowntodisappear!

theKraits(Bungarus)arehandledfairlyfreelybytheassistantswithoutthefangsbeingremoved,butthefangsofthecobrasareoftenremovedbyscrapingthemoutwithaflatpieceofwood.lesterreportsthatthemouthissometimesevensewnup. Angel (1) records that the “Acrochorde de java”(Acrochordus javanicus)saidtobecommonintheFareast,iseatenthere.hementionsseveralotherspeciesusedasfoodinvariouspartsofAsia.theseincludethefollowing:—Hypsirhina polylepis6fromnewguinea;Hypsirhina chinensis7,anopistho-glyphwellknownintonkin(FrenchIndo-China)andhuntednearhanoiandusedthereandintonkinasfood;blomhoff’sviper,Agkistrodon blomhoffii8waseateninjapaninthe18th

thebizarreandentirelyaquaticelephanttrunkorFilesnake(Acrochordus javanicus) was known to be eaten in parts of the malay peninsula.photograph©l.leegrismer.

5Asmall,lithe-bodied,mostlynocturnalmammalinthefamilyviverridaenativetotropicalAsiaandAfrica.

6macleay’smudsnake,nowplacedinthegenusEnhydris.7Chinesemudsnake,nowplacedinthegenusEnhydris.8betterknownastheshort-tailedmamushi,nowplacedinthegenusGloydius.

theChineseWatersnake(Enhydris chinensis)washuntedactivelyforfoodinwhatisnowvietnam.photograph©liZhen-Chang.

themamushiorblomhoff’sviper(Gloydius blomhoffii)waseatenin18th-centuryjapan.photograph©louisporras.

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century,andsiebold(1838)statesthatitsfleshwashighlynutritiousandhighpriceswerepaidforitinjapan;sea-snakesarebeheadedinhainanandtheirfleshmadeintosausages. IntheArabworldal-Damirisinhis“hayatal-hayawan(AZoologicalDictionary)”,london,1906(2vols.)invol.II,p.64,givesagoodaccountofbedouineatingvipers(hariya).thiscreatureissaidtobethehornedviper(Cerastes). AustrAliA.InAustralia,accordingtostirling(13),allkindsofsnakes,exceptthepoisonousones,areeatenbytheAustralianAborgines.theCarpetsnakeor“Yuppi”(11)andtheDiamondpython,bothvarietiesofthesamespecies,Python spilotes9,andthescruborAmethystinepython,Python ame-thystinus10arealsoeatenbythem,thelatterinArnhemland11.ten-footpythons,afterbeingstiffenedoverthefirearewoundintocoils18in.indiam.andcookedinthehotashes(2).suchlargesnakesasthesepythonsandtheRockpythonsLiasis fuscus12andL. olivaceus13,aretakeninnumbersandarespe-ciallyrelishedfortheirfat.theireggsarealsomuchprized.

InAustralia,scrubpythons(Morelia kinghorni)werestiffenedoverafire,woundintocoils,andcookedinhotashes.photograph©AlastairFreeman.

Australianolivepythons(Liasisolivaceus)wereespeciallyrelishedfortheirfatandtheireggs.photograph©seanp.graham.

9nowplacedinthegenusMorelia,asM. spilota.10nowplacedinthegenusMorelia;also,thespellingofthespecificepithethas

revertedtoitsoriginalspelling,withthespeciesnowknownasM. amethistina;Australianpopulationsformerlyrecognizedasasubspeciesnowareconsideredafullspecies,M. kinghorni.

11oneoffiveregionsinthenorthernterritoryofAustralia.12brownWaterpython.13olivepython.

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AccordingtoDaisybates(3),awell-knownauthorityontheAborigines,thelongandfatCarpetsnake,“goonia”Python spilotes,isrolledintolengthsandroasted,whiletheWombatsnakecalledmoolai-ongoo,probablyAspidites14,whencookedinhotashesforfourhoursbecomesverytender.Clay-bakingisanothermethod,theunskinnedandheadlesssnakebeingwrappedinclayandbakedinhotashesfor6to8hours. A recentwriter,Donaldthompson (12), states thatthejavanFilesnake,Acrochordus javanicus(awatersnake),

so-calledbecauseofitsrough,rasplikeskinandsometimesalso called elephant trunk snake in Arnhemland, andmacleay’sWatersnake,Hypsirhina polylepis,seealsoabove,ofe.Queenslandstreams,andprobablyanotherspeciesofHypsirhinaarealleatenbyaboriginesinn.Australia.

AfricanRockpythons(Python sebae)areeatenthroughoutmuchofWestAfrica,wheretheyarehuntedduringtherainyseasonwhentheytakerefugeinoldtermitemounds.

beforeWorldWarIIinwhatisnowghana,theauthorobservedmenhuntingforsnakes.thestripedsandsnake(Psammophis sibilans)wasoneofthespeciescapturedforfood.photograph©CesareColli.

theauthoroncesawatribesmaninwhatisnowghanacaptureapuffAdder(Bitus arietans)forfood,butonlyaftertheheadhadbeenremovedformaking“snakemedicine”tocureorpreventharmfromsnakebites.photograph©edCassano.

14twospeciesofpythonsareassignedtothegenusAspidites,theblackheadedpython,A. melanocephalusandtheWoma,A. ramsayi.

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AfricA. During my time of residence on the goldCoast15,beforethesecondworldwar,Ioncenoticednorthernterritorymenhuntingforsnakesisolatedonhillocksduringaflood,andsawthatAfricansandsnakes,Psammophis sibi-lans16wasoneofthespeciesofsnakethencapturedforuse

asfood.onanotheroccasiononeofmylabourers,alsoofnorthernterritoryorigin(agurunshi17),tookthebodyofapuffAdder,Bitus arietans,forfood,afterthepoisonousheadhadbeenremovedformaking“snakemedicine”tocureorpreventharmfromsnake-bite.thesnakeisofcoursefirstskinned,cutintopiecesandthencookedandeaten.lesterconfirmsmyobservationsthatpuffAdders,Bitis spp.,areeatenonthegoldCoast.Dr.b.m.nicol(8),anutritionexpertwritingrecentlyfromnigeria,gives3gramsofsnakemeatasanaverage(dailyorweekly?)consumptionofpeasantfarmers,basedonasurveyof3districtsofnigeria. thelargeAfricanpython,Python sebae18,whichreachesalengthoftwentyfeetisalsoeateninpartsofWestAfrica,e.g.,bytheDagombasandgurunshisofthenorthernterritoriesofthegoldCoast,andalsoinpartsofnigeria,accordingtonuno.livingstonedescribedbakalahariandbushmentakingsectionsofa15-20ft.snakeovertheshoulders,likelogsof

15theformerbritishcolonybecametheindependentnationofghanain1957.16hissingsandsnake.17AnAfricantribe,asareanumberofethnicentitiesmentionedinthefollowing

paragraphs.18AfricanRockpython.

greenAnacondas(Eunectes murinus),arguablytheworld’slargest(atleastheaviest)snakes,areeateninsouthAmerica.photograph©Césarl.barrioAmorós.

themeatofrattlesnakes,suchastheeasternDiamondback(Crotalus adamanteus),oftenissoldasanoveltytotouristsintheunitedstates.photograph©suzannel.Collins(CnAh).

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wood.theirfleshwasmuchappreciatedbythesepeople(6).schmidt(12)describesthehuntingofpythonsintherainyseasoninthebelgianCongowhentheytakerefugetosleepinlargeholes,e.g.,informertermitehills.thetracksoftheselargesnakesarefollowedtotheirretreatandnoosesaresetattheentrancetotheirholes,asimilarpracticebeingreportedfromFrenchWestAfricabyAngel.Asthepythonemergesitusuallygetscaughtbehindthehead,whileatothertimestheyarekilledwithspears.thesesnakesareextensivelyeatenbyAfricansinthatpartofthebelgianCongo19.theAfricanpython,Python sebae,iscommonlyeaten(sometimesroasted)inthelesssophisticatedpartsofA.e.sudan,e.g.,inDarfurandthenubaareaofsouthernKordofan20,andfurthersouthsomeofthenubaseatevencertainpoisonoussnakesafterdis-cardingheadandtailasequallypoisonous(Corkill).torday(15)givesagooddealofinformationontheuseornon-useofsnakesandotheranimalsasfoodbyAfricanpeoples,manyofhisauthoritiesbeingearlytraveller-explorers,someofwhomwroteofconditionsbeforethecomparativelysettledstateofmodernColonialAfrica,andwhenfamineresultingfromslaveraiding,fromdroughtsandfromlocustattacks,prob-ablybroughtmuchgreaterdistressthantoday.ofthesetheFan(A.l.bennett)ofFrenchequatorialAfrica21;theWarega(Delhaise),thebasonga(schmitz),theAbabua(Calonne-beaufaict),allofthebelgianCongo;theAzande(Anderson)oftheCongo-sudanborderandthebatawala(“rarely”—Colle)ofthen.Rhodesia22-Congoborder;theKychandthe bongo (“whose children hunt for them specially”—petherwick)ofthesouthernpartoftheA.e.sudan;andthesuk(Dundas)ofKenyaareallreportedbytheauthoritiesquotedashavingeatensnakes,whileinrecenttimespitman(9)reportsthatthebwambaofugandaeatsnakes. ontheotherhandtheseearlytravellersnotedthatthefollowingAfricantribeswerenotsnake-eating,theChuka(orde-brown) and manbetu (emin) from the belgian

Congo,andtheturkana(emley)andthenandi(johnston,hollis)ofKenya. theFrenchnaturalistlacépèdequotesshawassayingthatverymanypeopleinCairoanditssurroundingsusedtoeatlizardsandsnakes,apracticewhichgavethemthespe-cialprivilegeofwalkinginhonouredpartsofacertainyearlymoslemprocessioninCairo. AmericA.(a)North America.Intheunitedstatessnakemeatisonlyeatenasanovelty.Accordingtojohne.Werler,friedrattle-snakemeatwasgivenuntilrecentlyonsundaystovisitorstothesanAntonioReptilegardens,texas,forthosewhocaredtotryit.RossAllen,FloridaReptileInstitute,silversprings,Florida,canthemeatof the largeeasternDiamondbackRattlesnake,Crotalus adamanteus,atabout$1.50forasmallcan.Itsflavourissaidtoresemblethatof

themeatoftheboaConstrictor(Boa constrictor)isconsideredadelicacyinpartsofsouthAmerica.photograph©Kevinenge.

montpellier(Malpolon monspessulanus;top)andAesculapian(Zamenis longissimus; bottom)snakesoncewere eaten inFrance.photographs©saschaschmidt(www.herpshots.de).

19nameoftheDemocraticRepublicoftheCongopriortoCongoleseindepen-dencein1960.

20Aformerprovinceofcentralsudanthatwasdividedintothreefederalstatesin1994.21Aformerfederation(1910–1958)ofFrenchterritoriesinwest-centralAfrica

comprisingthepresent-daycountriesofChad,gabon,Congo,andCentralAfricanRepublic.

22AstateformerlycomprisingtheregionnowknownasZimbabwe.

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chicken,whileCalvinl.Wilsonthinksthatitresemblestur-key,butismoistlikechickenandthemeatbreakslikefish,ratherthanbeingfibrous.othersagainthinkthatitresemblesfrogs’legsinflavour.lesterrecentlytriedacanofrattlesnakeandfounditratherlikesofttastelessfish,anyflavourtherewasappearedtobefromthesauceinwhichthesnakewastinned.thefleshissometimeseatenfried.Angel(1)describestheuseofotherRattlesnakes,Crotalus spp.,inCanadaasfood,andinearlysettlementdays,whentreeswerebeingfelled,theywereabundant,andR.vaughanmelton(1951)quotesRossCox(c.1632)assayingthattheCanadiansofthattimeoftenatethem,firstskinningthemandcookingthemonastickoveranopenfire,turningthestickuntilthesnakewaswellroasted.h.j.Coke(1852)assuresusthattheflavourofrattlesnakemeatisbetterthanthatoftheeel,withwhichviewthomasAuburyagrees,tellingusthatitalsoproducesaveryrichsoup.thetravellerbartrain,travellingineasternFloridain1821,attendedalocalgovernor’sfeastatwhicharattlesnakewasserved.InotherpartsofthenewWorldrattlesnakeshavebeenpreparedaspreserves. (b)southAmerica.Anacondas,Eunectes murinus23,areeateninsouthAmerica(Angel(1)),wherethefleshoftheBoa constrictorisregardedasamostdaintydishineasternsouthAmerica(Ditmars(5)).Charlesm.bogertwritestosaythat

Boa constrictorsarereputedlyeateninsomepartsofmexico,thoughhecannotyetsubstantiatethisstatementfromfirst-handexperience.theRossAllenReptileInstitute,Florida,alsoreportthattheBoa constrictorcanbeusedasfood.Angel(1)describestheuseasfoodofUrotheca bicincta24fromtheguianasandbrazil. europe.Angel(1)describestheuseofsnakesasfoodinformertimesinFrance,e.g.,thebanded(collared)grasssnakesNatrix spp.,themontpelliersnake,Malpolon mon-spessulana 25andtheAesculapiansnake,Elaphe longissima 26.thesesnakesknownasthegreenandYellow(laverteetjaune)Coluber jugularis 27weresometimeseatenintimesofneedunderthenameof“hedgeeels”or“busheels”.moyseCharas,anearlywriter,speaksinhighpraiseofvipersasfood(andofcourseasmedicine,givingverygoodremedies).

23greenAnaconda.24this name might apply to one of several species in the genus Urotheca

(neotropicalgroundsnakes)or,more likely, toherrmann’sWatersnake(Hydrodynastes bicinctus).

25moreproperlyMalpolon monspessulanus(seepreviouscommentsonthegenderofgenericnames).

26nowusuallyassignedtothegenusZamenis,whichrequiresachangeingenderforthespecificepithettoZ. longissimus.

27thelargeWhipsnakeisnowassignedtothegenusDolichophisandwasprevi-ouslyconsideredconspecificwithD. caspiusandD. schmidti.

largeWhipsnakes(Dolichophis jugularis)weresometimeseatenintimesofneed.toavoidanydiscomfitureassociatedwitheatingsnakes,themeatwassoldunderthenameof“hedgeeel”or“busheel.”photograph©mattWilson(theeuropeanAmphibian&Reptileblog).

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During the german occupation of paris (1941-44)madame(Dr.)mariephisalix,aresearchworkeronreptilesatthemuseumofnaturalhistorymadeuseofeggsofvipersasfood,andrecommendedthefatinthem(andinthebodyofthevipersingeneral)tosupplementthemeagrefatrationofthatperiod. effects of HeAt on snAke Venom.Angel(1)hassomeinterestingobservationsonthequestionofthedestructionofthelethaleffectofthevenomofpoisonoussnakes,usedasfood.somefeelthatcareshouldbetakenwhenkillingthesnaketopreventitbitingitsownbodyinitsagony,soinject-ingthevenomintotheflesh intendedtoserveashumanfood.othersinsistthatcookingdestroysthepowerofanysuchpoisoninjectedinthisway.experimentshaveprovedthatthetemperaturerequiredtodestroythepowerofvenomdifferswithdifferentspecies.thatofBothrops alternotus28

(s.America)isdestroyedat65degreesC.afterheatingforquarterofanhour,whilethatoftheCascavelorCascarelleRattlesnake, Crotalus terrificus 29, of south and CentralAmericaneeds110degreesC.;thatofthebushmaster,the“surocuco”,Lachesis mutus 30,whichcomesfromthesameregions,required120degreesC. pArAsites in HumAns resulting from tHe eAting of snAkes.DuringmyvisittothegoldCoastin1948IwasshownaparasitetakenfromapatientinthegoldCoasthospitalinAccra,theparasitehavingpassedtotheAfricanvia a snakehehad eaten.thiswouldbe the arthropod,Porocephalus31.Dr.m.h.hughesofthemedicalResearchInstitute,Accra,goldCoast,reportsthatthesecork-screwshaped, worm-like Porocephalus armillatus, which growuptothreeinchesinlength,areharbouredbythefollow-ingsnakes:—Python sebae,Python regius32,Bitis nasicornis 33,Bitis gabonica34(cf.Anoldeditionofbrumpt’s“précisdeparasitologie”).thesefoursnakesoccurinthegoldCoast,andDr.hughes reports thatbothnymphsand larvaeofPorocephalushavenotinfrequentlybeenfoundinthemes-enteryofhumansatAccraandelsewhere,thoughtheirpres-encerarelygivesrisetoanysymptoms,andhecouldgivenoobservationswhethertheabovefoursnakes,oranyotherspecieshavebeenobservedtoharborporocephalidsonthegoldCoast.thenymphsarealsofoundinmonkeyse.g.onthegoldCoast.mr.lesterconfirmsthatvariousWestAfricansnakesatthelondonZoo,e.g.,Bitis gabonica,Bitis arietans,Naja nigricollis35andotherWestAfricanspecieshavebeenfoundtoharbourPorocephalus.thehostsofanotherporocephalid,Armillifer armillatusarereportedfromasouthAfricanpaperbyDr.Annieporter(10)asbeingthespe-ciesalreadyquoted,plusPython reticulatus,thenightAdder,Causus rhombeatusandCerastes cerastes36. though the origin of the infection is unknown,porocephalids are said tobecommonest amongst snake-eatingpeoples,whomay thus ingest eggs containing thelarvaeofporocephalids,e.g.,whenrawsnakefleshisocca-sionallyeatenasfoodandforritualpurposes,e.g.,bycertainshangaansofportugueseeastAfrica37.theAfricanreportsofsuchinfectionsdatebackto1830andarealmostentirelyfromWestandCentralAfricasofar,andarenotconfinedabsolutelytoAfricans,asonecasefrombathurst(1854)wasa

venomofthesouthAmericanbushmaster(Lachesis mutus),theworld’slargest pitviper, must be heated to 120 °C before it is denatured.photograph©brianR.eisele.

pentastomidparasitesarenotrestrictedtotheeasternhemisphere.these“tongue-worms”were taken fromayoung jararacuçu (Bothrops jara-racussu),asouthAmericanpitviper,inbrazil.photograph©guilhermegallassi.

28theurutu(Bothrops alternatus).29nowconsideredasubspeciesofthesouthAmericanRattlesnake(C. durissus).30nowLachesis muta(seepreviouscommentsonthegenderofgenericnames).31Internalparasitesintheclasspentastomida,alsoknownastongueworms.32ballpython.33Rhinocerosviper.34gaboonviper.35black-neckedspittingCobra.36Deserthornedviper.37Colonialnameformozambique,whichgainedindependencein1975.

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european.brodenandRadham(1907)foundporocephalidsin30outof133postmortemsintheCongo,andmouchetfoundtheparasitesin22%ofpostmortemsheconductedinleopoldville38.Casesfromjamaica(1865),fromAntwerp(1897)andtwocasesfromConstantinople39(1920)wereallAfricans.Itisthenymphswhichoccurasparasitesinman,andhavebeenknowntohavemortaleffects.

Bibliography1. Angel,F.—“vieetmoeursdesserpents”,paris,1950.

2. barrett,Charles,Robertsonandmullens—“CoastofAdventure:untamednorthAustralia”,mullens,1946.

3. bates,Daisy—“passingoftheAborigines”.london,johnmurray,1944.

4. burkill, I. h.—“A Dictionary of the economic products of the malaypeninsula”,london,1935.

5. Ditmars,Raymond—“snakesoftheWorld”,macmillan,1931.

6. livingstone,D.—“missionarytravelsinsouthAfrica”.

7. logan—journ.I.,1847,p.257.

8. nicol,b.m.—“nutritioninnigeria”,brit.j.nutr.,1949.

9. pitman,CharlesR.s.—“snakesofuganda”.ugandasociety,Kampala,1938.

10. porter,Annie—“noteonaporocephalid found inashangaan insouthAfrica”,s.A.journ.sci.XXv.359-363.

11. Roth,W.e.—“northQueenslandethnologybulletin”,3,24.(ApaperonFoodanditspreparation).

12. schmidt,K.p.—“herpetologyofthebelgianCongo”,bull.Amer.mus.nat.hist.vol.XlIX1-444,newYork,1924.

13. stirling—hornexpedition,Iv,p.52.

14. thompson, Donald—“explorations among an unknown people”(Arnhemland),geogr.j.,CXII-CXIv,1948-9

15. torday,e.—“Descriptivesociology—AfricanRaces”.london,1930.

38ColonialnameforKinshasa,thecapitaloftheDemocraticRepublicoftheCongo.39CapitaloftheeasternRomanorbyzantineempire,thelatin,andtheottoman

empires,nowknownasIstanbul(largestcityinturkey).