Post on 01-Jan-2016
© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Children
Socioemotional
Development in Infancy
7
© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Images of Children
• The story of Darius’s fathering– Work-at-home father– Extensive father-child interactions– Introduction of child care center– Coordinated careers and child care
© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Emotional Development
• Emotion: feeling or affect of importance– Complex and varies in intensity– Positive and negative; affects behaviors– Biological influences– Influenced by experiences and culture– Influenced by one’s perceptions
Development of Emotions and Personality in Infancy
© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Early Emotions
• Primary: present in humans, animals– Appear in first 6 months of life; surprise, anger,
joy, sadness, fear
• Self-conscious emotions– Appear after age 18 months; embarrassment,
jealousy, empathy, pride, share, guilt– Responses to reactions of others– Research controversy on jealousy in infants
Development of Emotions and Personality in Infancy
© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Emotional Expression and Social Relationships
• Two emotional expressions in infant communication– Crying
• Basic: rhythmic, incited by hunger• Angry: excess air in vocal cords• Pain: louder, high pitched, sudden, longer
– Smiling• Reflexive: natural, occurs 1 month after birth• Social: response to external stimuli
Development of Emotions and Personality in Infancy
© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Fear
• Earliest emotion; appears about 6 months– Abused, neglected infants show it much earlier– Stranger anxiety: fear, wariness of strangers
• Intense from 9 to 12 months• Not shown by all; intensity affected by social
context and stranger behavior/traits– Separation protest: distress at being separated
• peaks between 13 and 18 months
Development of Emotions and Personality in Infancy
© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Separation Anxiety in Four Cultures
Antiguan Guatemala
Guatemalan IndianIsraeli Kibbutzim
African Bushman
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Emotional Regulation and Coping
• During first year:– Gradual control of arousal to adapt, reach goal– Self-soothing in early infancy– Redirected attention, self-distraction later in
infancy– Language defines emotions by age 2
• Contexts affect emotional regulation– Caregiver responses matter, infant adapts
Development of Emotions and Personality in Infancy
© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Temperament
• Chess & Thomas: 3 basic types (clusters)– Easy child: positive mood, easily adapts– Difficult child: resists change, shows irregular
behaviors, reacts negatively (cries)– Slow-to-warm child: low mood intensity, low
activity level, somewhat negative– One-third of children don’t fit into these types– Temperament: moderately stable in childhood
Development of Emotions and Personality in Infancy
© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Temperament
• Kegan’s behavioral inhibition– Extroverted, bold child– Shy, subdued, timid child
• Inhibited to unfamiliar; shows anxiety, distress at about 7 to 9 months of age
• Inhibition intensity varies– Considerable consistency into early childhood
Development of Emotions and Personality in Infancy
© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Temperament
• Rothbart and Bates’ Classification– Extraversion/surgency: positive, impulsive– Negative affectivity: easily distressed
• Kegan’s inhibited child fits here– Effortful control: self-regulating, control varies
• Overall, don’t pigeon-hole children– Multiple dimensions of temperament exist– Context and experiences have impact
Development of Emotions and Personality in Infancy
© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Biological Foundations and Experience
• Biological influences: – Physiological characteristics associated with
different temperaments
• Gender, culture, and temperament• Goodness of Fit and Parenting
– Goodness of fit: match between child’s temperament and environmental demands
– Siblings differ in response to same parenting
Development of Emotions and Personality in Infancy
© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Parenting and Child’s Temperament
• Attention to and respect for individuality• Structuring the child’s environment• The “difficult child” and packaged
parenting programs– Flexible caregiver responses– Avoid “labeling” and self-fulfilling prophecy
Development of Emotions and Personality in Infancy
© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Personality Development
• Personality: enduring characteristics of emotions and temperament
• Erikson’s trust-versus-mistrust:– Infants experience world as either positive or
negative outcomes; continuity not guaranteed
• Sense of self: – real or imagined; motivating force in life– Self-recognition: about 18 months of age
Development of Emotions and Personality in Infancy
© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Personality Development
• The Developing Sense of Self– Separation and individualization process
• Independence– Erikson’s 2nd stage: Autonomy versus shame
and doubt
– Self-determination and pride or overcontrol creates shame and doubt
Development of Emotions and Personality in Infancy
© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
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Amsterdam study
Lewis and Brooks-Gunn study
Development of Self-Recognition in Infancy
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Social Orientation/Understanding
• Infants motivated to understand the world– Social orientation: perceptions, interpretations
• Face-to-face play; still-face paradigm• Different responses to humans and objects;
stronger, positive responses to humans – Locomotion (crawl, walk, run) independence;
lessens social interactions– Context and caregiver have effects
Social Orientation/Understanding and Attachment in Infancy
© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Intention, Goal-directed behavior, and Cooperation
• Important to cognitive development– Joint attention and gaze: help understand
others’ intentions• Occurs between 7 to 11 months, intensifies• Cooperation; connect self-intentions and
those of others (link to social competence)– Social referencing:
• Ability to ‘read’ emotional cues of others• Affects infants’ perceptions of others
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Attachment and Its Development
• Attachment; close emotional bond– Freud:
• Attachment to source of oral satisfaction• Disproved by Harlow’s research: physical
comfort preferred for security– Erikson:
• First year is key for attachment, physical comfort plays role here
Social Orientation/Understanding and Attachment in Infancy
© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
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Fed by wire motherFed by cloth mother
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Hours per day spent with cloth mother
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Harlow’s Results: Contact time with
wire and cloth surrogate mothers
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Attachment and Its Development
• Bowlby: ethological view - attachment is innate predisposition– Attachment: 4 phases of social cognition
• Phase 1; birth to 2 mos. – draws to humans• Phase 2: 2 to 7 mos. – focus on one person• Phase 3: 7 to 24 mos. – actively seek regular
contact with caregivers• Phase 4: after 2 yrs. – aware of others’ goals,
feelings, actions
Social Orientation/Understanding and Attachment in Infancy
© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Individual Differences in Attachment
• Ainsworth’s Strange Situation– Measures attachment by observation– Infant experiences series of contexts– 3 reactions to new situation
• Secure: positive, confident exploration• Insecure-avoidant; little interaction with
caregiver, no distress • Insecure-resistant: clings to caregiver• Insecure disorganized: disoriented, dazed
Social Orientation/Understanding and Attachment in Infancy
© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
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Cross-Cultural Comparison of Attachment:
Ainsworth’s strange situation applied to infants in three countries
in 1988
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Differences in Attachment
• Criticisms – Measures may be culturally-biased– Lab experiments may not reflect real life– Early attachment is significant
• Secure linked to high self-esteem, social competence, self-confidence to adolescence
• Less continuity for other children– Infants: resilient and adaptive in life– Attachment theory ignores diversity
Social Orientation/Understanding and Attachment in Infancy
© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
The Family
• Complex, constellation of subsystems– Reciprocal influences on each other
• The Transition to Parenthood– New parents must adapt: time, finances, roles– Marital satisfaction decreases after birth– Parental cooperation has effect
Social Contexts’ Affect On Socieoemotional Development in Infancy
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The Family
• Reciprocal Socialization is bidirectional– Scaffolding: positive parental behavior
supports children’s efforts– Children’s skills increase– Support modified to suit children’s level of
development– Mothers and fathers both competent
caregivers, but behave differently– Fathers: more physical in play interactions
Social Contexts’ Affect On Socieoemotional Development in Infancy
© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Child Care
• Child Care Policies Around the World– Five types of parental leave
• Maternity leave• Paternity leave• Parental leave• Child-rearing leave• Family leave
• Europe: leader of new ‘leave’ standards– Average of 16 weeks, 70% of wages paid
Social Contexts’ Affect On Socieoemotional Development in Infancy
© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Child Care
• Variations in child care– Type varies greatly:
• Large centers/elaborate facilities, homes• Commercial; nonprofit, churches, employers• Professionals • Mothers earning additional monies• Quality matters
– Low-income children: academic benefits– High quality linked to environment
Social Contexts’ Affect On Socieoemotional Development in Infancy
© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Child Care
• Patterns of use– High reliance and early entry
• By 4 months, nearly 3/4 of infants have had some non-maternal child care
– Socioeconomic factors affect amount and type • Income level, education, marital status• Dependence on mother’s income
– Quality affected by group size, caregiver-child ratio, caregiver (behavior, education, skills)
Social Contexts’ Affect On Socieoemotional Development in Infancy
© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Child Care
• Amount of child care– High-quality care and fewer hours in care lead
to positive outcomes
• Family and parenting influences– Influence not weakened by extensive child
care; parents have significant influence in children regulating emotions
Social Contexts’ Affect On Socieoemotional Development in Infancy